Cited by 124Primate Behavior and EcologyAnimal Behavior and Welfare StudiesPosttraumatic Stress Disorder Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 76 of the 76 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 18 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees

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Ferdowsian, Hope R., Durham, Debra L., Kimwele, Charles, Kranendonk, Godelieve, Otali, Emily, Akugizibwe, Timothy, Mulcahy, J. B., Ajarova, Lilly, Johnson, Cassie Meré·2011·PLoS ONE

DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0019855PMC PMC3116818

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: In humans, traumatic experiences are sometimes followed by psychiatric disorders. In chimpanzees, studies have demonstrated an association between traumatic events and the emergence of behavioral disturbances resembling posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. We addressed the following central question: Do chimpanzees develop posttraumatic symptoms, in the form of abnormal behaviors, which cluster into syndromes similar to those described in human mood and anxiety disorders? METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In phase 1 of this study, we accessed case reports of chimpanzees who had been reportedly subjected to traumatic events, such as maternal separation, social isolation, experimentation, or similar experiences. We applied and tested DSM-IV criteria for PTSD and major depression to published case reports of 20 chimpanzees identified through PrimateLit. Additionally, using the DSM-IV criteria and ethograms as guides, we developed behaviorally anchored alternative criteria that were applied to the case reports. A small number of chimpanzees in the case studies met DSM-IV criteria for PTSD and depression. Measures of inter-rater reliability, including Fleiss' kappa and percentage agreement, were higher with use of the alternative criteria for PTSD and depression. In phase 2, the alternative criteria were applied to chimpanzees living in wild sites in Africa (n = 196) and chimpanzees living in sanctuaries with prior histories of experimentation, orphanage, illegal seizure, or violent human conflict (n = 168). In phase 2, 58% of chimpanzees living in sanctuaries met the set of alternative criteria for depression, compared with 3% of chimpanzees in the wild (p = 0.04), and 44% of chimpanzees in sanctuaries met the set of alternative criteria for PTSD, compared with 0.5% of chimpanzees in the wild (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Chimpanzees display behavioral clusters similar to PTSD and depression in their key diagnostic criteria, underscoring the importance of ethical considerations regarding the use of chimpanzees in experimentation and other captive settings.

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TL;DR

This two-phase study applied DSM-IV and behaviorally anchored alternative criteria for PTSD and major depression to chimpanzees, finding symptom clusters similar to human mood and anxiety disorders. In phase 2, sanctuary chimpanzees with histories of trauma met alternative criteria for depression and PTSD far more often than wild chimpanzees.

Key findings

In phase 1, among 20 published chimpanzee case reports, average diagnoses per rater were 3 of 20 for PTSD and 1 of 20 for major depression using DSM-IV criteria; using alternative criteria, averages were 3 of 20 for PTSD and 1.6 of 20 for major depression.
Reliability was higher with alternative criteria: for PTSD, DSM-IV median percentage agreement was 43% and median Fleiss’ kappa was 0, versus 82% and 0.50 for alternative criteria; for depression, DSM-IV median agreement was 48% and median kappa was −0.10, versus 87% and 0.50 for alternative criteria.
In phase 2, 58% of sanctuary chimpanzees (n = 168) met alternative criteria for depression versus 3% of wild chimpanzees (n = 196; p = 0.04), and 44% of sanctuary chimpanzees met alternative criteria for PTSD versus 0.5% of wild chimpanzees (p = 0.04).
Where duration was reported, approximately 89% of individual alternative-criteria items for depression and PTSD persisted for at least 1 year; retest intra-rater percentage agreement averaged 81%–97%, with Cohen’s kappa averaging 0.40–0.80 across eight sites.

Methods

Phase 1 searched PrimateLit for genus *Pan* using the term “nonadaptive,” screened results to 20 individually identifiable chimpanzee cases from 12 published papers, and had three raters apply DSM-IV PTSD and major depression criteria. The authors then developed behaviorally anchored alternative criteria using chimpanzee ethograms and consultation with primatology, ethology, psychology, and psychiatry experts.
Phase 2 applied the alternative criteria at eight sites: three wild sites (n = 196) and five sanctuary sites (n = 168), including African sanctuaries and sanctuaries housing former laboratory chimpanzees. Three observers per chimpanzee completed surveys independently and were masked to study hypotheses; medical and behavioral records were also reviewed.
Prevalence differences were tested with Mann-Whitney U tests using an alpha of 0.05 in SPSS version 18.0; test-retest reliability was assessed in a random subsample with questionnaires repeated after approximately 2 weeks.

Limitations

Stated in the paper: chimpanzees cannot clearly articulate thoughts, feelings, and experiences; phase 1 relied on published case reports that may have contained biases or insufficient detail; some alternative-criteria items had low inter-rater reliability; there is no gold standard for assessing mood and anxiety disorders in chimpanzees, so external validity cannot be established; phase 2 was not longitudinal, did not allow full assessment of symptom duration or severity, was not designed for simultaneous observations, and relied on observer recall over differing time periods.
Stated in the paper: comparability of wild and sanctuary data collection is a possible concern, though the authors argue wild chimpanzees are observed systematically and physiological reactions such as heavy or irregular breathing would likely be underestimated rather than overestimated.
Evident from the text: the alternative criteria were developed and selected using the phase 1 case reports and expert consultation, then applied in phase 2, but the paper does not report independent validation against an external diagnostic standard; phase 2 prevalence estimates are based on caregiver/observer reports rather than direct clinical diagnosis.

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Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0019855

Cites

76 of 76 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Claims the paper makes

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Show all 31 claims

It may state two separate claims as one. 19
The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim. 15

In the paper
“The inability of nonhuman primates to report symptoms presents obstacles similar to those in pediatrics, psychiatry, and geriatrics, often requiring special investigative methods, including gathering information from relevant third parties [48]–[52].”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48]–[52]
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Likewise, other unfavorable rearing conditions, social isolation, prolonged captivity, sensory deprivation, and use in laboratory experimentation have been reported to be contributors to behavioral pathology in nonhuman primates [13]–[16].”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13]–[16]
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The association of pathological behaviors with captivity in nonhuman primates has been noted for decades [1]–[9].”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1]–[9]
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several authors have demonstrated the prevalence of abnormal behaviors, ranging from whole-body stereotypies to self-injurious behaviors, in chimpanzees and other nonhuman primates in captivity [6], [15], [17], [18].”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] LT Nash, 1999, Variables influencing the origins of diverse abnormal behaviors in a large sample of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)., Am J Primatol source
- Not checked yetcites [15] C Lutz, 2003, Stereotypic and self-injurious behavior in rhesus macaques: a survey and retrospective analysis of environment and early experience., Am J Primatol source
- Not checked yetcites [17] MA Hook, 2002, Inter-group variation in abnormal behavior in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)., Appl Anim Behav Sci source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Abnormalities of this axis have been described in animals subjected to confinement, restraint, isolation, or surgical procedures [22], [23].”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] FD McMillan, 2005, Mental health and well-being in animals source
- Not checked yetcites [23] NG Gregory, 2004, Physiology and behavior of animal suffering
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Complex PTSD, depression, and other psychiatric conditions have been diagnosed in other species, including chimpanzees [14], [22], [23], [41]–[46], although it is unclear how appropriate the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed.) criteria [47] or other traditional methods of assessing psychopathology are for use in species other than humans.”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] GA Bradshaw, 2008, Building an inner sanctuary: complex PTSD in chimpanzees., J Trauma Dissociation source
- Not checked yetcites [22] FD McMillan, 2005, Mental health and well-being in animals source
- Not checked yetcites [23] NG Gregory, 2004, Physiology and behavior of animal suffering
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mood and anxiety disorders such as PTSD and depression are commonly diagnosed among humans exposed to significant acute, recurrent, or persistent trauma [72]–[76].”
§ Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [72]–[76]
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.

33 of 33

The paper relies on this without support.
It is uncommon to study psychopathology in nonhuman primates using the terms and tools of human psychiatry.
“Despite the many similarities between humans and nonhuman primates, it is uncommon to study psychopathology in nonhuman primates using the terms and tools of human psychiatry.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Pathological behaviors in nonhuman primates are often described in isolation without being distilled into recognizable syndromes.
“Moreover, pathological behaviors in these individuals are often described in isolation without being distilled into recognizable syndromes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Diagnostic criteria for mood and anxiety disorders typically require verbal descriptions from subjects of their experiences and internal states.
“Diagnostic criteria for mood and anxiety disorders typically require verbal descriptions from subjects of their experiences and internal states.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Changes, disruption, or dysfunction of common neuropsychiatric systems can result in similar patterns of symptom expression.
“Similarly, changes, disruption, or dysfunction of common neuropsychiatric systems can result in similar patterns of symptom expression.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Chimpanzees cannot clearly articulate their thoughts, feelings, and experiences to humans.
“Chimpanzees cannot clearly articulate their thoughts, feelings, and experiences to humans, although a few have learned to communicate using sign language.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is no gold standard for the assessment of mood and anxiety disorders in chimpanzees.
“Since there is no gold standard for the assessment of mood and anxiety disorders in chimpanzees, it is not possible to establish the external validity of the alternative criteria we developed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The alternative criteria for PTSD and depression are valid indicators of these disorders in chimpanzees.
“We propose that these diagnostic terms be used, when applicable, in chimpanzees and offer criteria for their use.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Sanctuary chimpanzees are previously traumatized relative to wild chimpanzees.
“The significant differences we found in phase 2 between the wild and sanctuary populations in the percentage of chimpanzees who met a set of alternative diagnostic criteria for PTSD and depression suggest that syndromes similar to PTSD and depression are identifiable in previously traumatized chimpanzees.”

8 of 8

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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Average alternative-criteria depression diagnoses is misrounded
Minor
The three raters diagnosed 0, 2, and 3 cases, for an average of 1.67 cases per rater. Rounded to one decimal place, this is 1.7, not the reported 1.6.
Reported 1.6 · recomputed 1.666667

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“To be clear, the goal of this research was not to determine whether chimpanzees have psychopathy in the manifest polythetic dichotomous sense of the term, nor was it to derive ways for characterizing certain chimpanzees as “psychopaths” in a clinical sense, as has been done by some investigators studying other forms o…”
Result
Early life experience and alterations of group composition shape the social grooming networks of former pet and entertainment chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Crailsheim, D., Stüger, H. P., Kalcher-Sommersguter, E., & Llorente, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226947 · Cited by 27
What can animal models tell us about depressive disorders?
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Could Greater Time Spent Displaying Waking Inactivity in the Home Environment Be a Marker for a Depression-Like State in the Domestic Dog?
Harvey, N. D., Moesta, A., Kappel, S., Wongsaengchan, C., Harris, H., Craigon, P. J., & Fureix, C. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9070420 · Cited by 27
“Further research would also include assessing the co-variation of ABM not only with anhedonia but also with other key symptoms of depression, as discussed in previous studies [22,23], as well as into inter-individual variations in susceptibility to developing depression-like states, such as breed differences and activ…”
Can animals develop depression? An overview and assessment of ‘depression-like’ states
MacLellan, A., Fureix, C., Polanco, A., & Mason, G. J. (2021) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-bja10132 · Cited by 27
Invasive Research on Non-Human Primates—Time to Turn the Page
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“These problems persist for years, even after animals have been released from laboratories and moved to sanctuaries [98,100].”
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Lopresti‐Goodman, S. M., Bezner, J., & Ritter, C. (2015) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2014.1003673 · Cited by 23
“It consists of consulting the chimpanzees’ case or laboratory files to assess early life experiences, conducting interviews with primary caregivers regarding their history of symptoms, and directly observing the chimpanzees to assess the frequency and severity of abnormal behaviors and SIB (Bradshaw et al., 2008; Capa…”
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Lessons from Chimpanzee-based Research on Human Disease: The Implications of Genetic Differences
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Testing the individual and social learning abilities of task-naïve captive chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes sp. ) in a nut-cracking task
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Personality in Sanctuary-Housed Chimpanzees: A Comparative Approach of Psychobiological and Penta-Factorial Human Models
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Managing dingoes on Fraser Island: culling, conflict, and an alternative
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Early Trauma Leaves No Social Signature in Sanctuary-Housed Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Bruinstroop, B. M. C., & Haun, D. B. M. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani13010049 · Cited by 13
Environmental Influences on Sleep Behavior in Captive Male Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
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The evolution of the molecular response to stress and its relevance to trauma and stressor-related disorders
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“…and rocking, bar biting, hair picking, coprophagy, regurgitation, infanticide, lethargy, self injury, affect which contribute to a profound failure to form and maintain social relationships, including failure to copulate and breed (Brüne et al., 2006; Bradshaw, 2008; Ferdowsian et al., 2011).”
Background
Investigating putative depression-like states in the domestic dog: Does greater time spent displaying waking inactivity in the home kennel co-vary with negative judgment of ambiguity?
Harvey, N. D., Moesta, A., Wongsaengchan, C., Harris, H., Craigon, P. J., & Fureix, C. (2020) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105025 · Cited by 14
Long-Term Evaluation of Abnormal Behavior in Adult Ex-laboratory Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) Following Re-socialization
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Micropatterned Biphasic Nanocomposite Platform for Maintaining Chondrocyte Morphology
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Long-Term Assessment of Captive Chimpanzees: Influence of Social Group Composition, Seasonality and Biographic Background
Pascual, A., Kalcher-Sommersguter, E., Riba, D., & Crailsheim, D. (2023) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani13030424 · Cited by 11
A pilot study on the effects of a change in behavioural management on the behaviour of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
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A Cross-Species Comparative Approach to Positive Emotion Disturbance
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“It is well documented that many animals can experience and suffer from negative emotions including exhibiting symptoms consistent with those observed in posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, and depression (Bekoff, 2007; Bekoff & Pierce, 2009; Ferdowsian et al., 2011; Ferdowsian & Merskin, 2012), yet there…”
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Animal maltreatment: Implications for behavioral science professionals
Levitt, L. (2018) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.2371 · Cited by 8
Recognising depression in non-human primates: a narrative review of reported signs of depression
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“Diseases ( World Health Organization, 2019 ) to non-humans ( Ferdowsian et al., 2011 ; MacLellan et al., 2021 ; Úbeda et al., 2021 ).”
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Animal sexual abuse - a reality in Portugal and Spain
Castanheira, M. M. C. (2019) · Derecho Animal Forum of Animal Law Studies · doi:10.5565/rev/da.455 · Cited by 7
Assessing the sociability of former pet and entertainment chimpanzees by using multiplex networks
Crailsheim, D., Romani, T., Llorente, M., & Kalcher-Sommersguter, E. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77950-x · Cited by 7
Stress produces negative judgement bias in cuttlefish
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Vocal functional flexibility in the grunts of young chimpanzees
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The Human Challenge in Understanding Animal Cognition
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Observational approaches to chimpanzee behavior in an African sanctuary: Implications for research, welfare, and capacity‐building
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“…a current debate about the long ‐ term repercussions of these experiences (e.g., capture and then later rescue) on their behavior (e.g., Clay & de Waal, 2013b; Ferdowsian et al., 2011; Leavens et al., 2019; Rosati & Herrmann, Kaminski, et al., 2013; van Leeuwen et al., 2013; Wobber & Hare, 2011).”
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Potential Benefits of a ‘Trauma-Informed Care’ Approach to Improve the Assessment and Management of Dogs Presented with Anxiety Disorders
Corridan, C. L., Dawson, S. E., & Mullan, S. M. (2024) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani14030459 · Cited by 7
“…resilience: orphaned juveniles lacking in the safe and facilitating social environment provided by their mother, were less equipped for fine-tuned social play [102] (assayed by a higher prevalence of aggression) and deciding whom they entrusted to keep their body clean [103] (grooming behaviours).”
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A preliminary investigation on the evaluation of psychopathologies in a group of ex-pet and ex-performer chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): A rating approach based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Úbeda, Y., Fatjó, J., Rostán, C., Crailsheim, D., Gomara, A., Almunia, J., & Llorente, M. (2020) · Journal of Veterinary Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2020.08.006 · Cited by 5
Pet Macaques in Vietnam: An NGO’s Perspective
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“In a study of ex-laboratory chimpanzees at a North American sanctuary [35,36], rescued individuals showed clear signs of what may be comparatively described as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in humans, according to the criteria set out in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV).”
Method
A New Strategy for Animal Research: Attending to Dissent
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The Lasting Impact of Social Isolation: Behavioral Insights From Former Pet and Entertainer Chimpanzees in a Sanctuary in Spain
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The Symbolic Mind: Apes, symbols, and the evolution of language
Pedersen, J. (2012) · Iowa State University Digital Repository (Iowa State University) · doi:10.31274/etd-180810-2702 · Cited by 4
Animals in higher education settings: Do animal-assisted interventions improve mental and cognitive health outcomes of students? A systematic review and meta-analysisPreprint
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The Ban on the use of Chimpanzees in Biomedical Research and Testing in the UK Should be Made Permanent and Legally Binding
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EMOTION AS AN INTERVENING VARIABLE IN UNDERSTANDING THE COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL COMPLEXITY AND WELL-BEING OF CHIMPANZEES
Kano, F., Yamanashi, Y., & Tomonaga, M. (2012) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2012.9 · Cited by 3
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Comparative Psychopathology: Connecting Comparative and Clinical Psychology
Maple, T. L., & Segura, V. D. (2017) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2017.30.02.04 · Cited by 3
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Stoicism or Defeat? The Psychological Impact of the Kiln Environment on Working Donkeys and Mules
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“compared to humans, and age variations of animal species at the time of testing [11-25].”
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Peer Review #1 of "Testing the individual and social learning abilities of task-naïve captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes sp.) in a nut-cracking task (v0.2)"
(2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7287/peerj.8734v0.2/reviews/1

Authors: Ferdowsian, H. R., Durham, D. L., Kimwele, C., Kranendonk, G., Otali, E., Akugizibwe, T., Mulcahy, J. B., Ajarova, L., & Johnson, C. M.
Affiliations: Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (US)
University of Nairobi (KE)
Kibale Chimpanzee Project (UG)
Wildlife Conservation Society Uganda (UG)
Corresponding author: Ferdowsian, Hope R.
ORCID: Ferdowsian, Hope R.
Otali, Emily
Venue: PLoS ONE
Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published: 2011-06-16
Volume: 6
Issue: 6
Pages: e19855
ISSN: 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019855
PMC: PMC3116818
OpenAlex: W2098756499
Semantic Scholar: d9a5cc906e3214a5c0e35fe3448286e16061aa5a
Cited by: 124
References: 76
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 12.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
Locations: PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
WBI Studies Repository (submittedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
University of Nairobi Research Archive (University of Nairobi) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Arcus Foundation
Ministrstvo za visoko šolstvo, znanost in tehnologijo
Topics: Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Keywords: chimpanzees, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, traumatic events, maternal separation, social isolation, animal experimentation, wild chimpanzees, diagnostic criteria, ethogram, inter-rater reliability, animal welfare ethics
MeSH terms: Animals, Anxiety, Pan troglodytes, Female, Male, Mood Disorders

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Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees

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