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Cited by 187Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorAttachment and Relationship DynamicsNeuropeptides and Animal Physiology

Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review

Open access
Crockford, Catherine, Deschner, Tobias, Ziegler, Toni E., Wittig, Roman M.·2014·Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00068PMC PMC3949137
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Abstract

The neuropeptide, oxytocin, receives increasing attention due to its role in stress regulation and promoting affiliative social behavior. Research across mammals points to a complex pattern whereby social context and individual differences moderate the central release of oxytocin as well as moderate the effects that exogenous administration of oxytocin has on social behavior. In addition, it is becoming evident that measuring endogenous peripheral oxytocin levels is an informative tool. This is particularly so when oxytocin can be measured from non-invasively collected samples, such as in urine. Although it is still debated as to whether peripheral measures of oxytocin relate to central measures of oxytocin, anatomical and functional evidence indicate a link between the two. We argue that non-invasive measures of peripheral oxytocin hold several research and potential therapeutic advantages. Principally, study subjects can be sampled repeatedly in different social contexts where social history between interaction partners can be taken into account. Several hormones can be measured simultaneously allowing examination of the influence of oxytocin interactions with other hormones on motivational states. Valence of relationships as well as changes in relationship quality over time can be measured through endocrine responses. Also, the approach of identifying natural social contexts that are associated with endogenous oxytocin release offers the potential of behavioral therapy as an addition or alternative to chemical therapy in the field of mental health.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that measuring endogenous peripheral oxytocin, especially non-invasively in urine, can reveal how social context, relationship valence, and individual differences shape oxytocin release and social bonding. It synthesizes evidence that peripheral measures may track relationship strength and cooperative contexts, while noting unresolved questions about central-peripheral linkage and assay validity.

Key findings

  • Endogenous peripheral oxytocin can act as a biomarker of relationship valence/strength: in wild chimpanzees, urinary oxytocin was higher after at least 10 min of grooming with a bond partner than in resting controls, but not after grooming with a non-bonded partner (Crockford et al., 2013); food sharing was linked to high urinary oxytocin regardless of relationship valence and was higher than grooming with bond partners (Wittig et al., 2014).
  • Triggers are context- and individual-dependent: in humans, 15 min of massage followed by a monetary trust game raised plasma oxytocin, whereas massage alone or trust game alone did not (Morhenn et al., 2008); massage raised plasma oxytocin only in women who did not report relationship anxiety (Turner et al., 1999); after a stressor, urinary oxytocin rose only when followed by maternal vocal or physical comfort (Seltzer et al., 2010).
  • Anatomical and functional evidence supports some central-peripheral link: axonal projections release oxytocin centrally and peripherally, and forced swim stress raises central and peripheral oxytocin simultaneously (Wotjak et al., 1998); in tamarins, an estradiol pellet increased estradiol (t = 3.64, P = 0.04) and two of three males showed large oxytocin increases (mean pre OT = 17 ± 5 pg/mg Cr; mean post OT = 100 ± 15 pg/mg Cr).
  • Exogenous oxytocin effects are dose- and context-dependent: middle doses (20–24 IU) had the greatest positive effects, while low (10 IU) or high (48 IU) doses showed blunted effects; high brain concentrations may occupy vasopressin receptors, and non-invasive endogenous sampling allows repeated measures and simultaneous hormone measurement.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review synthesizing literature on oxytocin’s behavioral effects and on what social behaviors/contexts trigger endogenous oxytocin release, comparing central, exogenous peripheral, and endogenous peripheral approaches.
  • Data/sample: no new empirical sample; reviews studies across rodents, sheep, dogs, pigs, non-human primates (tamarins, marmosets, rhesus macaques, chimpanzees), and humans, with Table 1 summarizing selected studies by behavior, interaction partner, species, body fluid, and sex.
  • Main analysis: qualitative synthesis; Table 1 is explicitly not exhaustive, and the review discusses assay validation, including a 30–60 min time course from circulation to peak urine levels in humans and marmosets and HPLC validation to measure intact oxytocin and metabolites.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: it remains debated whether peripheral oxytocin measures relate to central oxytocin; urine assays require validation of methodology, timing, and metabolic changes; endogenous measures cannot always distinguish whether oxytocin was released due to stress or affiliation; exogenous oxytocin dosing lacks consensus, and high doses may occupy vasopressin receptors; captive animals’ early trauma may confound oxytocin studies; more research is needed.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative review rather than a systematic review or meta-analysis, Table 1 does not attempt to be exhaustive, and many conclusions depend on cited studies rather than reanalysis of primary data.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00068

Cites

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

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  • Premisecitation

    An additional major source of variation in oxytocin reactivity to certain social contexts and across individuals is likely related to interactions between the oxytocinergic system and other hormonal and neurotransmitter systems.

    “An additional major source of variation in oxytocin reactivity to certain social contexts and across individuals is likely related to interactions between the oxytocinergic system and other hormonal and neurotransmitter systems (for reviews see Heinrichs et al., 2009; Soares et al., 2010; Neumann and Landgraf, 2012), such as with cortisol (see Szczepanska-Sadowska, 2008; Heinrichs et al., 2009),”
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    Interactions between oxytocin and other hormonal/neurotransmitter systems may account for different behavioral and motivational states associated with high oxytocin levels in both animal and human studies.

    “Such interactions may account for different behavioral and motivational states associated with high oxytocin levels in both animal and human studies, for example, relaxed parent-infant interactions that engender affiliative and nurturant—“tend-and-befriend”—motivations, compared with in-group vs. out-group interactions that engender more affiliative and defensive—“tend-and-defend” motivations (”
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  • Interpretationreasoning

    Non-invasive measures of peripheral oxytocin hold several research and potential therapeutic advantages.

    “We argue that non-invasive measures of peripheral oxytocin hold several research and potential therapeutic advantages.”
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  • Premisecitation

    Research focus has been almost exclusively on determining what oxytocin does, to whom and in what contexts.

    “Of these studies, the focus has been almost exclusively on determining what oxytocin does, to whom and in what contexts (Bartz et al., 2011; Olff et al., 2013; Veening and Olivier, 2013 for reviews).”
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  • Interpretationreasoning

    Non-invasive measures allow study subjects to be sampled repeatedly in different social contexts where social history between interaction partners can be taken into account.

    “Principally, study subjects can be sampled repeatedly in different social contexts where social history between interaction partners can be taken into account.”
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    Premisenone given

    The subjects' relationship to the interaction partner and whether trust is evoked instead of anxiety are social circumstances that impact oxytocin release.

    “Such circumstances include, for example, the subjects' relationship to the interaction partner or whether trust is evoked instead of anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Oxytocin facilitates affiliation, social bonding, and stress regulation.

    “Oxytocin is known to facilitate affiliation, social bonding, and stress regulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin receptor distributions are highly variable across species, and to some extent within species.

    “However, oxytocin receptor distributions are highly variable across species, and to some extent within species (Insel, 2010), suggesting considerable functional variation is likely between species (Goodson and Thompson, 2010) and within species (Insel, 2010).”
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    Premisecitation

    The effects of oxytocin and what triggers oxytocin release in a given social context can both vary depending on individual differences such as sex, age, early experience, psychiatric or psychological health.

    “In addition, the effects that oxytocin has and what triggers oxytocin release in a given social context can both vary depending on individual differences such as sex, age, early experience, psychiatric or psychological health (effects of oxytocin: Bartz et al., 2011; Macdonald and Feifel, 2013; Olff et al., 2013; release of oxytocin: Sanders et al., 1990; Turner et al., 1999).”
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    The distribution of oxytocin in the brain is well conserved across mammals.

    “Comparative studies, for example, have shown that the distribution of oxytocin in the brain is well conserved across mammals.”
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    Premisecitation

    Endogenous oxytocin may be an important regulator and a biomarker of subjects' social motivation toward, or perception of, a given social context.

    “Indeed, endogenous oxytocin may be an important regulator and a biomarker of subjects' social motivation toward, or perception of, a given social context (Bartz et al., 2011; Macdonald and Feifel, 2013).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    It is important to examine what social behaviors and contexts trigger the release of endogenous oxytocin in order to understand the interaction between the oxytocinergic system, social context and individual differences.

    “In order to understand the interaction between the oxytocinergic system, social context and individual differences, it is also important to examine the other side of the system, what social behaviors and contexts trigger the release of endogenous oxytocin.”
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    Premisecitation

    Comparative study can show the processes by which competing behavioral and physiological demands on common neural systems interact and constrain each other during evolution.

    “Comparative study can show the processes by which competing behavioral and physiological demands on common neural systems interact and constrain each other during evolution (Curley and Keverne, 2005; Goodson and Thompson, 2010).”
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    • cites Goodson and Thompson, 2010

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    Interpretationcitation

    Considerable functional variation in oxytocin is likely between species and within species.

    “However, oxytocin receptor distributions are highly variable across species, and to some extent within species (Insel, 2010), suggesting considerable functional variation is likely between species (Goodson and Thompson, 2010) and within species (Insel, 2010).”
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    • cites Insel, 2010 source

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    Interpretationnone given

    Several hormones can be measured simultaneously, allowing examination of the influence of oxytocin interactions with other hormones on motivational states.

    “Several hormones can be measured simultaneously allowing examination of the influence of oxytocin interactions with other hormones on motivational states.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Research across mammals points to a complex pattern whereby social context and individual differences moderate the central release of oxytocin as well as moderate the effects that exogenous administration of oxytocin has on social behavior.

    “Research across mammals points to a complex pattern whereby social context and individual differences moderate the central release of oxytocin as well as moderate the effects that exogenous administration of oxytocin has on social behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Valence of relationships and changes in relationship quality over time can be measured through endocrine responses.

    “Valence of relationships as well as changes in relationship quality over time can be measured through endocrine responses.”
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    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin plays a key role in social bonding, having both short-term and long-term effects.

    “Oxytocin is known to play a key role in social bonding (Ross and Young, 2009), having both short-term and long-term effects (Winslow et al., 2003).”
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    Premisecitation

    Administering oxytocin into peripheral blood in meerkats induced cooperative behaviors including pup-feeding, guarding, digging and decreased aggression, suggestive of enhanced prosocial motivation.

    “In another study, administering oxytocin into peripheral blood in meerkats induced a whole suite of cooperative behaviors including pup-feeding, guarding, digging and decreased aggression (Madden and Clutton-Brock, 2011), suggestive of enhanced prosocial motivation.”
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    There are indications for a positive feedback system in the context of labor during child birth, and it is hypothesized in the context of affiliation and cooperation.

    “There are indications for this in the context of labor during child birth (Russell et al., 2003), and this is hypothesized, for example, in the context of affiliation (Uvnäs-Moberg, 1998) and cooperation (see De Dreu, 2012).”
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    Premisecitation

    In some studies oxytocin only increases positive perceptions or social motivations toward others, and in other studies it also amplifies pre-existing social motivations or perceptions, whether positive or negative.

    “Finally, in some studies oxytocin only increases positive perceptions or social motivations toward others (Chang et al., 2012; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2013) and in other studies it also amplifies pre-existing social motivations or perceptions, whether positive or negative (De Dreu, 2012).”
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    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin facilitates social cognition, enhances social memory, social recognition and attention, and operates in the reward centers of the brain.

    “Furthermore, it facilitates social cognition, enhances social memory, social recognition and attention, and operates in the reward centers of the brain (Insel, 2010).”
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    Cross-fostered rats with foster mothers who licked and groomed them at low rates become low LG mothers, whereas pups with high LG foster mothers became high LG mothers.

    “Cross-fostered rats with foster mothers who licked and groomed them (LG) at low rates become low LG mothers. Whereas pups with high LG foster mothers became high LG mothers.”
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    • cites Francis et al., 1999, 2000

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    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin is a key component in bond formation between mother and offspring as well as in pair bonds.

    “Indeed, linking measures of central oxytocin to behavior in mammals has been critical for establishing the role of oxytocin beyond its central involvement in child birth and lactation (see Ross and Young, 2009 for a review), to that of a key component in bond formation between mother and offspring as well as in pair bonds.”
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    Exogenous oxytocin has anxiolytic potential; following 24 IU of oxytocin, humans were more likely to approach rather than retreat from angry faces.

    “Studies using inhaled oxytocin have demonstrated that exogenous oxytocin has anxiolytic potential, as when angry, happy or neutral faces were rapidly displayed in a computer screen, humans, using a joystick, were more likely to “approach” rather than “retreat” from angry faces following 24 IU of oxytocin (Radke et al., 2013).”
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    Oxytocin increases gaze to faces and improves social recognition.

    “It increases gaze to faces and improves social recognition (see Guastella and MacLeod, 2012 for review).”
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    Premisecitation

    Administering 40 IU of intranasal oxytocin increased positive communication during and decreased salivary cortisol after couple conflict in both men and women.

    “Also, Ditzen et al. (2009) showed that administering 40 IU of intranasal oxytocin increased positive communication during and decreased salivary cortisol after couple conflict in both men and women.”
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    For Israeli Jewish subjects, inhaled oxytocin increased empathy toward potential out-group (Palestinian Arab) members but not to potential in-group members where empathy levels were already high.

    “Furthermore, using an in-group vs. out-group paradigm, Shamay-Tsoory et al. (2013) showed that for Israeli Jewish subjects, inhaled oxytocin increased empathy toward potential out-group (Palestinian Arab) members but not to potential in-group members where empathy levels were already high.”
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    Female prairie vole mate preferences can be formed by oxytocin infusion and blocked by an oxytocin agonist.

    “In terms of pair bonding, female prairie vole mate preferences can be formed by oxytocin infusion (Williams et al., 1994) and blocked by an oxytocin agonist (Insel and Hulihan, 1995).”
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    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin-and oxytocin-like neuropeptide-administration decreases blood pressure in various species.

    “Oxytocin—and oxytocin-like neuropeptide—administration has long been known to decrease blood pressure in various species (Paton and Watson, 1912; Woodbury and Abreu, 1944).”
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    Premisecitation

    Intraperitoneally-administered oxytocin lowered cortisol release and increased wound-healing in paired hamsters, whereas a centrally-administered oxytocin agonist decreased wound-healing.

    “Intraperitoneally-administered oxytocin lowered cortisol release and increased wound-healing in paired hamsters, whereas a centrally-administered oxytocin agonist decreased wound-healing (Detillion et al., 2004).”
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    Premisecitation

    Under certain circumstances, oxytocin may activate a positive feedback system, such that oxytocin may trigger a behavior or motivation, or vice versa, and the behavior or motivation may trigger further oxytocin release.

    “As a final effect of oxytocin, it is thought that under certain circumstances, oxytocin may activate a positive feedback system, such that oxytocin may trigger a behavior or motivation, or vice versa. Then, the behavior or motivation may trigger further oxytocin release, which may again initiate more of the behavior (Uvnäs-Moberg, 1998; De Dreu, 2012).”
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    Premisecitation

    In rhesus macaques, subjects that engaged in a food sharing task showed first greater selfish choices and after 2 h greater prosocial choices after inhaling oxytocin.

    “In rhesus macaques, for example, Chang et al. (2012) found that subjects that engaged in a food sharing task showed first greater selfish choices and after 2 h greater prosocial choices after inhaling oxytocin.”
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    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin has strong anxiolytic-or stress-reducing effects.

    “Oxytocin also has strong anxiolytic—or stress-reducing effects (Churchland and Winkielman, 2012; Veening and Olivier, 2013).”
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    Inhaled oxytocin arrives in the behaviorally-relevant parts of the brain in mice and rats and in the CSF in rhesus monkeys, although the exact route remains elusive.

    “More recently, Neumann et al. (2013) in mice and rats, and Chang et al. (2012) in rhesus monkeys showed that inhaled oxytocin arrives in the behaviorally-relevant parts of the brain and in the CSF, respectively, although the exact route remains elusive.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    A critical aspect of examining a positive feedback system will be to measure endogenous oxytocin levels, not only to administer oxytocin.

    “However, a critical aspect of examining a positive feedback system will be to measure endogenous oxytocin levels, not only to administer oxytocin.”
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    Premisecitation

    Both less invasive approaches (exogenous oxytocin administration and measuring endogenous peripheral oxytocin) have been criticized.

    “However, both of these less invasive approaches have been criticized (see Macdonald and Feifel, 2013 for review).”
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    Premisecitation

    Socially isolated rats receiving stressors of restraint and ether, but not cold, showed raised plasma oxytocin levels, indicating that some, but not all, non-social stressors precipitate peripheral oxytocin release.

    “Socially isolated rats receiving stressors of restraint and ether, but not cold, showed raised plasma oxytocin levels (Gibbs, 1984), indicating that some, but not all, non-social stressors precipitate peripheral oxytocin release.”
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    Premisecitation

    Individuals who maintain bonds between same-sex adults compared with those who do not, have more offspring, live longer and are healthier.

    “Individuals who maintain bonds between same-sex adults compared with those who do not, have more offspring, live longer and are healthier (monkeys: Schülke et al., 2010; feral horses: Cameron et al., 2009; humans: Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010).”
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    Premisecitation

    In the control condition, where exposure to a stressor was followed by subjects watching a film on their own, elevated salivary cortisol but not urinary oxytocin levels were detected.

    “In the control condition, where exposure to a stressor was followed by subjects watching a film on their own, elevated salivary cortisol but not urinary oxytocin levels were detected.”
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    • cites Seltzer et al., 2010 source

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    Premisecitation

    Many studies show ameliorating effects of oxytocin on psychological stress and psychiatric disorders.

    “Many studies show ameliorating effects of oxytocin on psychological stress and psychiatric disorders (Striepens et al., 2011; Macdonald and Feifel, 2013).”
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    Premisecitation

    Both non-social and social stressors are associated with oxytocin release.

    “In terms of stress-related oxytocin triggers, both non-social and social stressors are associated with oxytocin release (DeVries et al., 2003; Bartz and Hollander, 2006; Table 1).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    More recent studies with humans show that oxytocin release in association with affiliative touch and other contexts does occur but is subject to changes in social circumstances and individual differences, the particular effects of which are not yet well established.

    “More recent studies with humans show that oxytocin release in association with affiliative touch and other contexts does occur but is subject to changes in social circumstances and individual differences, the particular effects of which are not yet well established.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    A necessary feature of researching the changes in relationships over time is being able to conduct repeated sampling from repeated interactions over time, which is difficult with current invasive methods.

    “A necessary feature of researching the changes in relationships over time is being able to conduct repeated sampling from repeated interactions over time, again difficult to conduct with current invasive methods.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The chances of such an effect occurring increase when considering a third aspect, that there may be a positive feedback system between oxytocin release and certain behaviors or motivations.

    “The chances of such an effect occurring increase when considering a third aspect, that there may be a positive feedback system between oxytocin release and certain behaviors or motivations.”
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    Premisecitation

    Suckling or nipple stimulation increases plasma oxytocin in rats and in full-term pregnant women.

    “Likewise, others have found that suckling or nipple stimulation increases plasma oxytocin in rats (Neumann et al., 2000) as well as in full-term pregnant women (Christensson et al., 1989).”
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    Premisecitation

    Mating-induced effects, specifically vaginocervical stimulation in rodents and sheep, and orgasm in men and women, increase plasma oxytocin levels, whilst vaginocervical stimulation in prairie voles increases oxytocin levels in the brain.

    “Mating-induced effects, specifically vaginocervical stimulation in rodents (Sansone et al., 2002) and sheep (Kendrick et al., 1986), and orgasm in men and women (Ogawa et al., 1980; Carmichael et al., 1987) increase plasma oxytocin levels, whilst vaginocervical stimulation in prairie voles increases oxytocin levels in the brain (Ross et al., 2009a,b).”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stimulation of peripheral afferent nerves with pleasant (stroking) or unpleasant (foot pinching) touch rapidly increased plasma oxytocin levels in rats, as did direct electrical stimulation of the vagal and sciatic nerves.

    “Stimulation of peripheral afferent nerves with pleasant (stroking) or unpleasant (foot pinching) touch rapidly increased plasma oxytocin levels in rats, as did direct electrical stimulation of the vagal and sciatic nerves (Stock and Uvnäs-Moberg, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stock and Uvnäs-Moberg, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Behaviors or social contexts associated with oxytocin may be influenced by an associated sense of reward and may thus be more likely to occur again.

    “Behaviors or social contexts associated with oxytocin may be influenced by an associated sense of reward and may thus, be more likely to occur again (Broad et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Broad et al., 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Oxytocin released during interactions with bond partners may enhance the social memory of those interactions, reinforcing partner-specific preferences.

    “It may be that oxytocin released during interactions with bond partners enhances the social memory of those interactions (see Choleris et al., 2009; Ross and Young, 2009; Brent et al., 2013 for reviews), reinforcing partner-specific preferences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Choleris et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ross and Young, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Brent et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Several additional, less invasive approaches for examining the interaction between social behavior and oxytocin have been established.

    “Thus, several additional, less invasive approaches for examining the interaction between social behavior and oxytocin have been established.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Whilst the relationship between stress and oxytocin may be straightforward in rodents, the relationship may be more dependent on social context in humans.

    “Whilst the relationship between stress and oxytocin may be straightforward in rodents, the relationship may be more dependent on social context in humans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    fMRI techniques require study subjects to be restrained during examination, rendering them impractical for examining natural triggers or effects of oxytocin on animals and humans when engaged in contexts representative of natural social and environmental life.

    “fMRI techniques are also not yet at a point where study subjects can be anything other than restrained during the examination (e.g., Bethlehem et al., 2012; Rilling et al., 2012), rendering them impractical for examining natural triggers or effects of oxytocin on animals and humans when engaged in contexts representative of natural social and environmental life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bethlehem et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rilling et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Beneficial bonded relationships can be with kin or between non-kin.

    “In some cases these beneficial bonded relationships are with kin, such as between sisters (Silk et al., 2003, 2010), but in some cases they are between non-kin (Cameron et al., 2009; Schülke et al., 2010; humans: Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Silk et al., 2003, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Cameron et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schülke et al., 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is no consensus on optimal doses for inhaled oxytocin, and dosage has been hard to control.

    “The current limitations of the inhaled oxytocin approach are that as yet, dosage has been hard to control and indeed there is no consensus on optimal doses for use in studies (Cardoso et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cardoso et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Some of these effects may be accounted for by dosage issues.

    “Some of these effects may be accounted for by dosage issues mentioned below.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Positive correlations exist between personal ratings of partner support and plasma oxytocin levels both in baseline conditions and following 10 min of warm contact.

    “Grewen et al. (2005) found positive correlations between personal ratings of partner support and plasma oxytocin levels both in baseline conditions and following 10 min of warm contact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grewen et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Few studies measure endogenous oxytocin levels in conjunction with oxytocin administration, so determining how applied doses relate to endogenous oxytocin levels and their effects has not been addressable.

    “Likewise, determining how applied doses may relate to endogenous oxytocin levels and their effects has not been addressable, partly because few studies measure endogenous oxytocin levels in conjunction with oxytocin administration (review: Bartz et al., 2011; Olff et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Olff et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High plasma oxytocin levels correlated positively with the level of mother-infant bondedness and father-infant synchrony.

    “Other studies show that high plasma oxytocin levels correlated postively with the level of mother-infant bondedness (Feldman et al., 2007) and father-infant synchrony (Gordon et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Feldman et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gordon et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin typically increases cooperation toward those perceived as in-group members but simultaneously decreases cooperation and increases negative attitudes toward out-group members.

    “oxytocin typically increases cooperation toward those perceived as being in-group members but simultaneously decreases cooperation and increases negative attitudes toward out-group members (see De Dreu, 2012 for a review).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In humans, plasma oxytocin levels were raised following a combination of 15 min of massage followed by a monetary trust game, but not following either massage or trust game alone.

    “Morhenn et al. (2008) showed that in both men and women, plasma oxytocin levels were raised following a combination of 15 min of massage followed by a monetary trust game. Plasma oxytocin levels, however, were not raised following either a massage or trust game alone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morhenn et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Daily treatment of marmosets with 50 μg oxytocin for 30 days facilitated pair-bond formation.

    “These results parallel those of an exogenous oxytocin study on marmosets where daily treatment of 50 μg for 30 days facilitated pair-bond formation (Smith et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children who played with their principle carer rather than with strangers showed higher urinary oxytocin levels, whereas orphans who had suffered severe neglect showed no change in urinary oxytocin levels across conditions.

    “In other human studies, Fries et al. (2005) showed that children who played with their principle carer rather than with strangers showed higher urinary oxytocin levels whereas orphans who had suffered severe neglect showed no change in urinary oxytocin levels across conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fries et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The oxytocinergic system and social and emotional development are sensitive to psychological trauma during ontogeny.

    “Given the apparent sensitivity of the oxytocinergic system as well as of social and emotional development to psychological trauma during ontogeny (Francis et al., 1999, 2000; Winslow et al., 2003; Heim et al., 2008)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Francis et al., 1999, 2000

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Winslow et al., 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Heim et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A number of studies in healthy people and in patients with psychological or psychiatric disorders show that administration of oxytocin leads to negative not positive social effects, suggesting that exogenous oxytocin does not always lead to increased affiliation.

    “However, a number of studies in healthy people, as well as in patients with psychological or psychiatric disorders show that administration of oxytocin leads to negative not positive social effects (Epperson et al., 1996; Bartz et al., 2011; Feifel, 2011; Mah et al., 2012), suggesting that exogenous oxytocin does not always lead to increased affiliation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Epperson et al., 1996 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bartz et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Feifel, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Middle doses (20-24 IU) of oxytocin have the greatest positive effects, whereas low (10 IU) or high doses (48 IU) show blunted effects.

    “Middle doses (20–24 IU) have the greatest positive effects, whereas low (10 IU) or high doses (48 IU) show blunted effects (Goldman et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2012; Cardoso et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Goldman et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hall et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Cardoso et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Maintaining higher cortisol levels could amount to maintaining vigilance, critical in a natural setting when facing danger, and simultaneously maintaining higher oxytocin levels could result in increased social contact rather than promoting dispersal.

    “The interpretation is that maintaining higher cortisol levels could amount to maintaining vigilance, critical in a natural setting when facing a danger. Simultaneously maintaining higher oxytocin levels could result in increased social contact rather than promoting dispersal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Variation in endogenous levels of oxytocin may be an indicator not only of the strength of a relationship but also of the bonding value of a particular behavior or a social context.

    “There is some indication that variation in endogenous levels of oxytocin may be an indicator not only of the strength of a relationship but also of the bonding value of a particular behavior or a social context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Peripheral and central concentrations of oxytocin are simultaneously raised during forced swimming stress in rats, suggesting a coordinated release of oxytocin into central and peripheral areas.

    “From the functional side, Wotjak et al. (1998) demonstrated that peripheral and central concentrations of oxytocin are simultaneously raised during forced swimming stress, suggesting a coordinated release of oxytocin into central and peripheral areas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wotjak et al., 1998 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two independent studies identified concomitant axonal projections from magnocellular neurons to various extra-hypothalamic brain regions and to the posterior pituitary; stimulation of these projections led to release of oxytocin into the brain and the periphery.

    “From the anatomical side, two independent studies identified concomitant axonal projections from magnocellular neurons to various extra-hypothalamic brain regions and to the posterior pituitary. Stimulation of axonal projections led to release of oxytocin into the brain and the periphery (Ross et al., 2009a,b; Knobloch et al., 2012) resulting in expected changes to rat behavior (Knobloch et al., 2”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ross et al., 2009a,b

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Knobloch et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Female prairie voles pretreated with peripheral oxytocin had raised plasma oxytocin levels 95 min later, and in the condition of oxytocin administration before the stressor, heart rate was lower than in the non-oxytocin condition.

    “Yee et al. (cited in Olff et al., 2013) showed that female voles pretreated with peripheral oxytocin had subsequent raised plasma oxytocin levels 95 min later. In the condition of oxytocin administration before the stressor, heart rate was lower than in the non-oxytocin condition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yee et al. in Olff et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In female rats, suckling offspring caused lowered neurohypophyseal oxytocin and higher plasma oxytocin levels 15 min after suckling, suggesting release of stored oxytocin from the neurohypophysis into the blood.

    “Juszczak and Stempniak (1997) found that female rats had lowered neurohypophyseal oxytocin levels and higher plasma oxytocin levels compared with basal levels 15 min after suckling offspring, suggesting that suckling caused the release of stored oxytocin from the neurohypophysis into the blood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Juszczak and Stempniak, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In dogs and pigs, increased plasma oxytocin occurs in mothers during suckling, as well as when mothers and adult males themselves fed, and there is an anticipatory raise in oxytocin up to 2 min prior to receiving food.

    “They found increased plasma oxytocin in mothers during suckling, as well as when mothers and adult males themselves fed. Interestingly the study also showed an anticipatory raise in oxytocin up to 2 min prior to receiving food.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Uvnäs-Moberg et al., 1985 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    In tamarins, estradiol pellet implantation increased estradiol significantly in all three males, and two of three males showed a large increase in oxytocin following estradiol elevation, indicating that functional changes in oxytocin can be measured in urine.

    “In tamarins, for example, Snowdon et al. (2010) implanted three males with an estradiol pellet (1.5 mg continuous release over 30 days) and collected urine samples before and during the period of the implant. Estradiol increased significantly in all three males (t = 3.64, P = 0.04) ensuring the effectiveness of the pellets in raising estradiol. Male oxytocin response varied substantially, but two”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Snowdon et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For human children, after being exposed to an acute stressor, comforting physical or vocal contact with their mother increased urinary oxytocin levels and decreased salivary cortisol levels more quickly than in control conditions with no mother contact.

    “Seltzer et al. (2010) have shown, however, that for human children, after being exposed to an acute stressor, comforting physical or vocal contact with their mother increased urinary oxytocin levels and decreased salivary cortisol levels more quickly than in control conditions with no mother contact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Seltzer et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although rodent studies show oxytocin release in response to non-social stressors, few human or non-human primate studies have done so.

    “Indeed, although rodent studies show oxytocin release in response to non-social stressors (e.g., Wotjak et al., 1998), few human—or non-human primate—studies have done so (see Sanders et al., 1990).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wotjak et al., 1998 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sanders et al., 1990 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For humans and the common marmoset, radiolabeled studies indicate a time course from circulation into the urine as 30-60 min for peak levels to appear, and this window appears consistent across the primate order.

    “For humans and the common marmoset, radiolabeled studies have indicated a time course from circulation into the urine as 30–60 min for peak levels to appear (Amico et al., 1987; Seltzer and Ziegler, 2007). This indicates that when examining responses to an event, the desired collection time would be within this window and the window appears to be consistent across the primate order.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Amico et al., 1987 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Seltzer and Ziegler, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The effects of cooperative acts on urinary oxytocin were similar whether subjects were donors or recipients of grooming or food sharing, and whether donors and receivers were male or female.

    “The effects were similar whether subjects were donors or recipients of grooming or food sharing, and whether donors and receivers were male or female.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Crockford et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wittig et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In wild chimpanzees, urine samples following naturally-occurring food sharing events had low testosterone levels and high oxytocin levels.

    “In the context of food sharing in wild chimpanzees, urine samples following naturally-occurring food sharing events had low testosterone levels (Sobolewski et al., 2012) and high oxytocin levels (Wittig et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sobolewski et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wittig et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In feeding studies, social interaction with feeding, rather than feeding itself, may have been the oxytocin trigger.

    “It may be that in the feeding studies, social interaction with feeding, rather than feeding itself, was the oxytocin trigger.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    It is still debated if or how peripheral measures of oxytocin relate to central measures of oxytocin and therefore whether measurements of peripheral oxytocin levels hold biological validity.

    “It is still debated if or how peripheral measures of oxytocin relate to central measures of oxytocin and therefore, whether measurements of peripheral oxytocin levels hold biological validity (see Macdonald and Feifel, 2013 for review of both sides of the debate).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Macdonald and Feifel, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In humans, under certain social circumstances, affiliative touch increases plasma oxytocin, as can vocal reassurance.

    “and in humans, under certain social circumstances, affiliative touch increases plasma oxytocin, as can vocal reassurance (Seltzer et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Seltzer et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In plasma samples, oxytocin has a proteolytic enzymatic breakdown that occurs rapidly and requires an inhibitor added to the sample; urine is acidic and limits the breakdown of oxytocin compared with blood.

    “In plasma samples, oxytocin has a proteolytic enzymatic breakdown that occurs rapidly and requires an inhibitor added to the sample. Urine is acidic and limits the breakdown of oxytocin compared with the blood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A complex and nuanced pallet of oxytocin, its releasers and its effects are emerging, which to some extent depend on the age, sex, previous experience, early attachment, psychiatric or psychological condition of the individual as well as the current social or non-social context, the social motivation or perception of individuals to the task at hand.

    “Clearly, a complex and nuanced pallet of oxytocin, its releasers and its effects are emerging, which to some extent depend on the age, sex, previous experience, early attachment, psychiatric or psychological condition of the individual as well as the current social or non-social context, the social motivation or perception of individuals to the task at hand.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Measures of endogenous peripheral oxytocin may act as a biomarker for the dynamic processes of social relationships, the strength, and valence of relationships and how these change over time.

    “Additionally, measures of endogenous peripheral oxytocin may act as a biomarker for the dynamic processes of social relationships, the strength, and valence of relationships and how these change over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Endogenous oxytocin levels during oxytocin-associated social interactions can be moderated by additional factors such as relationship quality, psychological state, or perception of social context.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In women, high basal plasma oxytocin levels were associated both with relationship anxiety and attenuated plasma oxytocin levels following massage or positive emotion.

    “The results from Bales et al. (2013) to some extent reflect those of a study on women examining endogenous oxytocin levels, where high basal plasma oxytocin levels were associated both with relationship anxiety and attenuated plasma oxytocin levels following massage or positive emotion (Turner et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Turner et al., 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chronic exposure to exogenous oxytocin can lead to a dampening of the short-term improvement effect and to even counterproductive results.

    “However, first indications exist that chronic exposure to exogenous oxytocin can lead to a dampening of this effect and to even counterproductive results (Bales et al., 2013; but see Young, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bales et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Young, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Non-invasive sampling allows several hormones to be measured simultaneously, allowing examination of the influence of oxytocin interactions with other hormones on motivational states.

    “Another strength of non-invasive sampling is that several hormones can be measured simultaneously allowing examination of the influence of oxytocin interactions with other hormones on motivational states.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
83 of 83

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The psychological component of an interaction (perception/motivation) can be distinguished from the physical properties of the interaction.

    “to determine how much oxytocin release is dependent on an individuals' perception or motivation rather than the physical properties of the social interaction (how gentle or intimate the affiliative touch is), careful assessment is needed of both the physical properties of the interaction as well as subjects' perceptions and motivation prior to and following the social interaction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Peripheral oxytocin measures from plasma, urine, or saliva are comparable enough across studies to be synthesized.

    “As with the measurement of circulating levels of oxytocin, determination in the urine requires validation of the methodology, the timing of release, and metabolic changes that may occur to the peptide excreted into the urine.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Oxytocin is sensitive to stressors and several aspects of social context as well as the perceptions or social motivations of human and non-human primates.

    “Given that oxytocin is sensitive to stressors and several aspects of social context as well as the perceptions or social motivations of human and non-human primates alike”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Endogenous oxytocin levels during oxytocin-associated social interactions can be moderated by additional factors such as relationship quality, psychological state, or perception of social context.

    “research also begins to show that even when engaged in oxytocin-associated social interactions, like massage, endogenous oxytocin levels can be moderated by additional factors, such as the quality of the relationship between the subject and the interaction partner, the subjects' psychological state or perception of the current social context.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Increased endogenous oxytocin levels within the parent-infant relationship promote affiliative and nurturant behaviors such as tend-befriend behavior, but in in-group vs. out-group interactions, oxytocin supports affiliative tend-defend motivations and behavior.

    “For example, increased endogenous oxytocin levels within the parent-infant relationship promote affiliative and nurturant behaviors such as tend-befriend behavior but when engaged in in-group vs. out-group interactions, oxytocin supports affiliative tend-defend motivations and behavior (Taylor et al., 2006; Campbell, 2008; Crockford et al., 2014).”

    From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Crockford et al., 2014

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Variations in oxytocin release and social behavior may be attributed to its widespread interactions with other neuroendocrine systems.

    “Variations in oxytocin release and social behavior may be attributed to its widespread interactions with other neuroendocrine systems (Crockford et al., 2014).”

    From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Crockford et al., 2014

  • The association between endogenous oxytocin and prosociality may not be a direct linear association but may depend upon context.

    “However, the association between endogenous oxytocin and prosociality may not be a direct linear association but may depend upon context.”

    From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Crockford et al., 2014

  • Oxytocin pathways can involve coordinated central and peripheral oxytocin release, indicating that high peripheral measures reflect the release of central oxytocin.

    “However, an increasing body of evidence shows that oxytocin pathways can involve coordinated central and peripheral oxytocin release, indicating that high peripheral measures reflect the release of central oxytocin.”

    From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [36]

  • An increasing number of studies demonstrate the same effects of behavior, social context, and social relationships on both central and peripheral oxytocin measures.

    “Furthermore, an increasing number of studies demonstrate the same effects of behavior, social context, and social relationships on both central and peripheral oxytocin measures (35–37).”

    From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [36]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Human orgasm studies are classified as rodent studies

    Minor

    The paper groups Ogawa et al. (1980) and Carmichael et al. (1987) under rodent studies, but earlier identifies both as studies of orgasm in humans.

1 of 1

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References 124 · Cited by 187

Authors
Crockford, C., Deschner, T., Ziegler, T. E., & Wittig, R. M.
Affiliations
  • Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (DE)
  • University of Wisconsin System (US)
Corresponding author
  • Crockford, Catherine
  • Wittig, Roman M.
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2014-03-11
Volume
8
Pages
68-68
ISSN
1662-5153 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00068
PMC
PMC3949137
OpenAlex
W2157920552
Semantic Scholar
cf702e0c1c9be602f880d4e8e7655a8c99a47309
Cited by
187
References
124
Citations by year
2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 3
FWCI
2.65
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
National Institutes of Health (P51OD011106)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuropeptides and Animal Physiology
Keywords
oxytocin, interpersonal relationships, affiliative behavior, stress regulation, individual differences, social environment, relationship quality, endocrine interactions, behavior therapy, mental health

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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