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Forest Loss in Protected Areas and Intact Forest Landscapes: A Global Analysis
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In spite of the high importance of forests, global forest loss has remained alarmingly high during the last decades. Forest loss at a global scale has been unveiled with increasingly finer spatial resolution, but the forest extent and loss in protected areas (PAs) and in large intact forest landscapes (IFLs) have not so far been systematically assessed. Moreover, the impact of protection on preserving the IFLs is not well understood. In this study we conducted a consistent assessment of the global forest loss in PAs and IFLs over the period 2000-2012. We used recently published global remote sensing based spatial forest cover change data, being a uniform and consistent dataset over space and time, together with global datasets on PAs' and IFLs' locations. Our analyses revealed that on a global scale 3% of the protected forest, 2.5% of the intact forest, and 1.5% of the protected intact forest were lost during the study period. These forest loss rates are relatively high compared to global total forest loss of 5% for the same time period. The variation in forest losses and in protection effect was large among geographical regions and countries. In some regions the loss in protected forests exceeded 5% (e.g. in Australia and Oceania, and North America) and the relative forest loss was higher inside protected areas than outside those areas (e.g. in Mongolia and parts of Africa, Central Asia, and Europe). At the same time, protection was found to prevent forest loss in several countries (e.g. in South America and Southeast Asia). Globally, high area-weighted forest loss rates of protected and intact forests were associated with high gross domestic product and in the case of protected forests also with high proportions of agricultural land. Our findings reinforce the need for improved understanding of the reasons for the high forest losses in PAs and IFLs and strategies to prevent further losses.
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“Our results provide regional support for agricultural expansion and 'Urban expansion' being unambiguously linked to forest loss inside protected areas globally (Heino et al. 2015).”
From Forest loss during 2000–2019 in pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis) habitats was driven by shifting agriculture (2024) · cites this paper as Heino et al. 2015
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Items 101–191 of 191
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BackgroundA truncating mutation in EPOR leads to hypo-responsiveness to erythropoietin with normal haemoglobin
Oskarsson, G. R., Kristjansson, R. P., Lee, A. L., Sveinbjörnsson, G., Magnússon, M. K., Ivarsdottir, E. V., Benónísdóttir, S., Oddsson, Á., Davidsson, O. B., Saemundsdottir, J., et al. (2018) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-018-0053-3 · Cited by 12
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BackgroundConservation planning for retention, not just protection
Negret, P. J., Li, R. V., Sonter, L. J., Possingham, H. P., & Maron, M. (2024) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.17211 · Cited by 12
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Rapid MODIS-based detection of tree cover loss
Wheeler, D. R., Guzder-Williams, B., Petersen, R., & Thau, D. (2018) · International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation · doi:10.1016/j.jag.2018.02.007 · Cited by 10
Hoffmann, S. (2020) · Frontiers of Biogeography · doi:10.21425/f5fbg49679 · Cited by 11
“Biodiversity is higher inside protected areas than in their surroundings (Coetzee et al. 2014, Gray et al. 2016), while they cannot halt the loss completely (Rada et al. 2019, Dähler et al. 2019, Laurance et al. 2012, Geldmann et al. 2019, Leberger et al. 2019, Heino et al. 2015).”
BackgroundImpact of individual protected areas on deforestation and carbon emissions in Acre, Brazil
Koskimäki, T., Eklund, J., MOULATLET, G. M., & Tuomisto, H. (2021) · Environmental Conservation · doi:10.1017/s0376892921000229 · Cited by 16
“…PA impact studies have primarily focused either on the overall average impact of protection at national to global scales (Joppa & Pfaff 2011, Heino et al. 2015) or on the comparative impact of broad PA categories (e.g., Soares-Filho et al. 2010, Nolte et al. 2013, Pfaff et al. 2014,…”
Background20 years of landscape dynamics within the world's largest multinational network of protected areas
Chețan, M. A., & Dornik, A. (2020) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111712 · Cited by 11
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Lessmann, J., Geldmann, J., Fajardo, J., & Marquet, P. A. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2307521121 · Cited by 9
“Following Heino et al. (24), we aggregated data on forest cover and forest loss extent to ~ 0.5 km 2 and ~ 1 km 2 cell resolution (at the equator) for the PA and PA system - level analyses, respectively.”
InfluentialProtecting Forests From Conversion: The Essential Role of Supply-Side National Laws
Haywood, C., & Henriot, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Forests and Global Change · doi:10.3389/ffgc.2019.00035 · Cited by 9
Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity in India
Kumar, A., Yadav, R., Patil, M., Kumar, P., Zhang, L., Kaur, A., Sharma, S., Hussain, S., Tokas, D., & Singh, A. N. (2020) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.92435 · Cited by 9
“This is why the rate of forest loss is still high in some protected areas, not only in India but across the world [25].”
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Oliveira, L., Cecílio, R. A., Zanetti, S., Loos, R. A., Bressiani, D. D. A., & Srinivasan, R. (2020) · iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry · doi:10.3832/ifor3221-013 · Cited by 9
“Brazil is a forested country, with 494 million hectares (58% of its territory) of natural and planted forests, which represents one of the largest areas of for- ests on the planet (Heino et al. 2015).”
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Bernhard, K. P., Shapiro, A., d’Annunzio, R., & Kabuanga, J. M. (2024) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs16010204 · Cited by 9
“Other factors such as forest cover outside of a protected area, agricultural suitability of the soil, age of the park, and enforcement may influence the risk to intact forests inside of a protected area [29,86].”
Development of spatial database on intact forest landscapes of India
Reddy, C. S., Singh, J., Jha, C. S., Diwakar, P. G., & Dadhwal, V. K. (2016) · Global and Planetary Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.12.005 · Cited by 7
Chapa‐Vargas, L., Ceballos, G., Tinajero, R., & Torres‐Romero, E. J. (2019) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.13637 · Cited by 7
“Natural vegetation losses to farming, for instance, have increased exponentially and altered the size of populations and overall diversity of wild animal and plant communities on Earth (Heino et al., 2015; Steffen et al., 2015).”
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“The unprecedented levels of deforestation and biodiversity loss in Southeast Asia are some of the highest in the world (Duckworth et al. 2012; Clements et al. 2014; Heino et al. 2015; Hughes 2017).”
BackgroundA digital approach to quantifying political vulnerability of protected areas
Guedes‐Santos, J., Correia, R. A., Malhado, A. C. M., & Ladle, R. J. (2021) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2021.08.005 · Cited by 7
Density and occupancy of leopard cats across different forest types in Cambodia
Pin, C., Channa, P., Kamler, J. F., Rostro‐García, S., Penjor, U., In, V., Crouthers, R., Macdonald, E. A., Chou, S., & Macdonald, D. W. (2022) · Mammal Research · doi:10.1007/s13364-022-00634-6 · Cited by 7
“2011), even inside protected areas (Heino et al. 2015).”
Mignone, B. K., Huster, J. E., Torkamani, S., O’Rourke, P., & Wise, M. (2022) · Climate Change Economics · doi:10.1142/s2010007822500087 · Cited by 9
Rodríguez, G. L., Vicente, V. R., & Pérez, M. F. M. (2022) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f13081161 · Cited by 7
Protected areas influence fire regimes globally
Cardíl, A., Rodrigues, M., Ascoli, D., Ortega, M., Quiñones, T., Erdozain, M., Menor, I. O., Spadoni, G. L., Ramírez, J., Molina, J. R., et al. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.128285 · Cited by 6
“Additionally, it has been reported that forest loss is higher inside PAs than outside in Mongolia and parts of Central Asia and Europe(Heino et al., 2015), which may suggest that this encroachment effect could alter fire behavior within PAs, potentially leading to significant repercussions.”
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Mitigating the impact of bad rainy seasons in poor agricultural regions to tackle deforestation
Leblois, A. (2021) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abdbf0 · Cited by 6
Zhao, X., Dong, J., Yu, Y., Liao, M., Zhang, L., & Gong, J. (2025) · Geo-spatial Information Science · doi:10.1080/10095020.2025.2510365 · Cited by 9
“Forest monitoring is crucial for global ecological balance and carbon cycle monitoring (Heino et al. 2015; Cook-Patton et al. 2020).”
Rasoamanana, A., Tahina, R. F., & Gardner, C. J. (2023) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003363101-10 · Cited by 7
Negret, P. J., Rincón-Parra, V. J., Jones, K. R., Rathbone, V., Novoa, S., Quispe-Huanca, M. P., Valdés‐Velásquez, A., Forero‐Medina, G., Schleicher, J., Amano, T., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-76225-9 · Cited by 5
“under intense human pressure 12 , more than half of protected forests have a substantial degree of anthropogenic disturbance 13 , and 3% of forest within PAs was lost in the fi rst decade of the 20th century 14 .”
How natural are the forests in Rajiv Gandhi (Nagarhole) Tiger Reserve? A multi-source data approach
Swarada, B., Pasha, S. V., & Dadhwal, V. K. (2024) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-024-12586-2 · Cited by 4
Belay, W. A., Bedada, T. B., & Gessesse, B. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815998-9.00018-x · Cited by 5
Simulating national-scale deforestation in the Philippines using land cover change models
Jardeleza, J. M., Gotangco, C. K., & Guzman, M. D. (2019) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · Cited by 5
Lwin, K. K., Ota, T., Shimizu, K., & Mizoue, N. (2020) · Journal of Forest Research · doi:10.1080/13416979.2020.1810396 · Cited by 5
Cirezi, N. C., Bastin, J., Mugumaarhahama, Y., Sikuzani, Y. U., Karume, K., Lumbuenamo, R. S., & Bogaert, J. (2024) · Land · doi:10.3390/land14010049 · Cited by 6
Svensson, J. S., López‐Peinado, A., Jonsson, B. G., & Singh, N. J. (2025) · Restoration Ecology · doi:10.1111/rec.14390 · Cited by 4
“This has left only small patches of high-conservation-value forests (Heino et al. 2015; Svensson et al. 2019; Sabatini et al. 2020).”
Duduman, G., Duduman, M., Avăcăriței, D., Bărnoaiea, I., Barbu, C.-O., Ciornei, I., Clinovschi, F., Coșofreț, C., Cotos, M.-G., Danila, G., et al. (2020) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f11091004 · Cited by 4
“According to Popatov et al. (2008) [21], the global area of intact forest landscapes was estimated in 2008 to 1.31 billion hectares, but their loss rate was assessed by Heino et al. (2015) [22] at 2.5% for the period 2000–2012 and by Potapov et al. (2017) [23] at 7.2% between 2000 and 2013.”
BackgroundInfluentialSukmasuang, R., Bhumpakphan, N., McShea, W. J., Wajjwalku, W., Siriaroonrat, B., Kamolnorranart, S., Yindee, M., Nipanan, T., Maleehuan, B., Khanthathongsakuldee, K., et al. (2022) · Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity · doi:10.13057/biodiv/d231008 · Cited by 5
Power Dynamics in African Forests
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Deforestation in Africa: Implications on Food and Nutritional Security
Chirwa, P. W., & Adeyemi, O. (2019) · Historiographies of science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69626-3_62-1 · Cited by 4
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Gatti, R. C., Velichevskaya, A. I., Dudko, A., Fabbio, L., & Notarnicola, C. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147372 · Cited by 4
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The future of Colombian Andean forests under different deforestation scenarios
Rubiano, K., Figueroa, D. C., Bernal-Guatibonza, N., & Clerici, N. (2026) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2026.114605 · Cited by 3
Demarcation as symbolic politics: insights from conservation territories expansion in Central Africa
Rasoamanana, A., Krott, M., Majambu, E., Bikaba, D., & Ongolo, S. (2025) · Forests Monitor · doi:10.62320/fm.v2i1.15 · Cited by 3
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“This is consistent with Ferretti-Gallon and Busch (2014) and Heino et al. (2015) results showing limited impact of protected areas on deforestation at the national level and high heterogeneity across countries.”
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Crop Prices and Deforestation in the TropicsPreprint
Berman, N., Couttenier, M., Leblois, A., & Soubeyran, R. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-658539/v1 · Cited by 3
“forest when the forest cover in year 2000 is larger than 25%, as in global studies using the same data 186 [48, 49, 50].”
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“The DRC is therefore pivotal in conserving contiguous tropical forest and supplying critical ecosystem services [45, 66, 89, 101].”
Méndez, J. L. A., Soto, V. H., & Limón-Salvador, F. (2024) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants13060839 · Cited by 4
“Thus, the obtained results allow for an objective understanding and prediction of the potentially suitable habitat of P. mariae under current and future conditions, aiding in making informed decisions for management policies, care, and conservation of this species.”
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“protected areas is associated with high proportions of agricultural land in the country 14 [11].”
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“To lessen forest degradation and enhance biodiversity conservation, the classification of forest land as protected areas has been recognized as a crucial step toward achieving sustainability (Heino et al. 2015).”
BackgroundEcological Risk Assessment of Land-Use in Hainan Prefecture, China, Based on Landscape Pattern
Yang, Q., Tang, H., & Yang, C. (2025) · Polish Journal of Environmental Studies · doi:10.15244/pjoes/200212 · Cited by 1
“…out by Heino et al. clearly shows that continuous and effective forest protection strategies can significantly increase the forest coverage rate and enhance the stability of the ecosystem [52], providing a solid practical basis and scientific guidance for the management of local forest resources.”
Forest loss persists despite certification and protection
Taylor, C., Evans, M. J., & Lindenmayer, D. B. (2026) · Communications Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s44458-026-00055-5 · Cited by 1
Landscape disruption in a fragmented world: A critical global analysis
Rivas, C. A., Palacios-Rodríguez, G., & Navarro-Cerrillo, R. M. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2026.130131 · Cited by 1
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Harvested and burned forests as habitats for polypore fungi
Suominen, M. (2018) · Dissertationes Forestales · doi:10.14214/df.267 · Cited by 1
“Globally, forest loss and degradation have been rapid during the past century (Heino et al., 2015).”
BackgroundМорозов, В. Е., Алейников, А. А., Смирнова, О. В., АНАПОЛЬСКИЙ, А. Б., Vasilov, R. G., Гаврилов, В. М., Коротков, В. Н., Makarieva, A. M., Nefiodov, A. V., & ЧИКУНОВ, А. В. (2019) · Энергия экономика техника экология · doi:10.7868/s0233361919080020 · Cited by 1
Wilderness conservation in the Anthropocene
Allan, J. R. (2019) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2019.569 · Cited by 1
da Silva, M. P., Correa, S. P. L. P., Schaefer, M. A. R., Reis, J. C. S., Nunes, I. M., dos Santos, J. A., & Oliveira, H. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5063928 · Cited by 1
Social and Environmental Correlates of Palm Oil Certification in Indonesia
Borden, M. G. (2016) · DukeSpace (Duke University)
Lawson, L. A. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Planning and Management · doi:10.1080/09640568.2019.1646634
“…guarantee a zero forest loss and PA size in Europe is not to be considered as an indicator of its biological species richness, they help effectively protect endemic species and reduce infrastructure development and urbanization-related human pressure (Heino et al. 2015; Hoffmann et al. 2018).”
BackgroundA Study on Distance Based Representation of Molecules for Statistical Learning
Wasee, A., Chaudhuri, R. G., Kumar, P., & Iype, E. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41862-5_56
Development Aid, FDI and environmental protection in Africa
Hofman, P. (2020) · doi:10.18174/531119
“There is substantial evidence on the effect of protected areas on: (i) local deforestation (Okumu and Muchapondwa, 2020; Heino et al., 2015; DeFries et al., 2005; Butchart et al., 2010; Geldmann et al., 2019; Jayachandran et al., 2017; Herrera et al., 2019) (ii) livelihoods (Okumu and Muchapondwa,…”
BackgroundInfluentialNegret, P. J., Li, R. V., Sonter, L. J., Possingham, H. P., & Maron, M. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2090760/v1
Владимирович, П. А., & Dunn, A. (2023) · GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY · doi:10.24057/2071-9388-2022-110
Svensson, J. S., López‐Peinado, A., Jonsson, B. G., & Singh, N. J. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.05.27.596035
“…scattered land ownership and extensive industrial forestry has resulted in fragmentation and loss of natural forest habitats including primary and old growth forest, leaving only small patches of high conservation value forests behind (Heino et al. 2015; Svensson et al. 2019; Sabatini et al. 2020).”
BackgroundCoba, L. G., Pat-Aké, I., Martínez, P., Oros-Ortega, I., López-Toledo, J. F., & Pérez, L. A. L. (2025) · Revista de teledetección: Revista de la Asociación Española de Teledetección · doi:10.4995/raet.2025.22276
Status and future prospect of deregistered woodland key habitats in Northwestern Sweden
Ervander, U., Silva, W. T. A. F., Hårding, K. C., & Jonsson, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0331191
Changes in vegetation cover and landscape fragmentation in the Panidihing Bird Sanctuary, India
Sharma, N., Robeson, S. M., & Saikia, A. (2024) · Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography · doi:10.1080/00167223.2025.2586849
“About 3% of PAs were lost between 2000–2012 at a global scale (Heino et al., 2015).”
Tree Ferns Augment Native Plant Richness and Influence Composition in Urban Plant Communities
Rogers, H. C., Burdon, F. J., & Clarkson, B. D. (2025) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f16091498
Centrality of nature-based attractions in ecotourism
Weaver, D. B. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-32996-8.00007-8
Places to Watch: Identifying High-Priority Forest Disturbance From Near–Real Time Satellite Data
Berger, A., Carter, S., Weisse, M., Petersen, R., Sargent, S., Gibbes, S., & Terry, J. (2026) · doi:10.46830/writn.24.00070
A machine learning framework for mapping shifts in species' abundance from long‐term monitoring data
Shabanov, I., Lensen, A., Tonkin, J. D., & Deslippe, J. R. (2026) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.70344
“New Zealand, as a study area, is well-suited for studying climate-driven abundance shifts because its forests span a wide range of latitudinal, elevational and temperature gradients (see Figure 3 ) with intact forests largely managed for conservation (Ewers et al., 2006; Heino et al., 2015 ).”
Kotani, J. S., & Ivars, J. P. (2026) · Trees Forests and People · doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101328
Spatial insights on edge-driven degradation in protected tropical forests of Bangladesh
Saimun, M. S. R., Karim, M. R., Khan, M. A. S. A., & Mukul, S. A. (2026) · Environmental and Sustainability Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.indic.2026.101483
Fourfold increase in fragmentation from road expansion in Siberian intact forests since 2000
Zhang, Z. J., Li, Z. B., Wang, M., Egorov, A., Edwards, D. P., Chen, J., Wu, Q., Feng, Y., Luo, L., Yang, L., et al. (2026) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-026-03162-7
“More critically, our analysis of road expansion in Siberian IFLs reveals that even within mapped IFLs, intactness is not guaranteed, aligning with global findings that both protected areas and IFLs do not universally prevent forest loss 52 .”
Toivonen, J., & Rana, P. (2026) · Ecological Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2026.104085
Landscape Context Influences the Use of Nest Boxes by a Black‐Cockatoo
Berris, K. K., Barth, M., Mooney, P., Leigh, S., & Welz, T. (2026) · Ecological Management & Restoration · doi:10.1111/emr.70071
Metadata
- Authors
- Heino, M., Kummu, M., Makkonen, M., Mulligan, M., Verburg, P. H., Jalava, M., & Räsänen, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Aalto University (FI)
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (FI)
- King's College London (GB)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Kummu, Matti
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2015-10-14
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- e0138918
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4605629
- OpenAlex
- W2211614845
- Cited by
- 192
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 9.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Aaltodoc (Aalto University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Academy of Finland (267463, 257919)
- Aalto-Yliopisto
- China Scholarship Council
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (311819)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Forestry › Forest Management and Policy
- Keywords
- forest loss, protected areas, intact forest landscapes, forest cover change, protected area effectiveness, gross domestic product, agricultural land, deforestation
- MeSH terms
- Africa, Agriculture, Americas, Asia, Australia, Conservation of Natural Resources, Europe, Humans, Trees, Forestry, Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing Technology, Forests
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