Cited by 192Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource ManagementLand Use and Ecosystem ServicesForest Management and Policy

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Forest Loss in Protected Areas and Intact Forest Landscapes: A Global Analysis

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Heino, Matias, Kummu, Matti, Makkonen, Marika, Mulligan, Mark, Verburg, Peter H., Jalava, Mika, Räsänen, Timo A.·2015·PLOS ONE

DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0138918PMC PMC4605629

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Abstract

In spite of the high importance of forests, global forest loss has remained alarmingly high during the last decades. Forest loss at a global scale has been unveiled with increasingly finer spatial resolution, but the forest extent and loss in protected areas (PAs) and in large intact forest landscapes (IFLs) have not so far been systematically assessed. Moreover, the impact of protection on preserving the IFLs is not well understood. In this study we conducted a consistent assessment of the global forest loss in PAs and IFLs over the period 2000-2012. We used recently published global remote sensing based spatial forest cover change data, being a uniform and consistent dataset over space and time, together with global datasets on PAs' and IFLs' locations. Our analyses revealed that on a global scale 3% of the protected forest, 2.5% of the intact forest, and 1.5% of the protected intact forest were lost during the study period. These forest loss rates are relatively high compared to global total forest loss of 5% for the same time period. The variation in forest losses and in protection effect was large among geographical regions and countries. In some regions the loss in protected forests exceeded 5% (e.g. in Australia and Oceania, and North America) and the relative forest loss was higher inside protected areas than outside those areas (e.g. in Mongolia and parts of Africa, Central Asia, and Europe). At the same time, protection was found to prevent forest loss in several countries (e.g. in South America and Southeast Asia). Globally, high area-weighted forest loss rates of protected and intact forests were associated with high gross domestic product and in the case of protected forests also with high proportions of agricultural land. Our findings reinforce the need for improved understanding of the reasons for the high forest losses in PAs and IFLs and strategies to prevent further losses.

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Fig 1 Aggregated (A-B) and converted (C-D) datasets used for the forest loss analyses. A) Forest extent in percentage of grid area at 1 km resolution, based on Global Forest Change (GFC) data [5]; B) Forest loss in percentage of grid area at 1 km resolution, based on GCF data [5]; C) Protected areas based on World Database of Protected Areas (WDPA) [30], converted to 1 km resolution; and D) Large Intact Forest Landscapes (IFLs) based on dataset by Potapov et al [20], converted to 1 km resolution.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 2 Absolute and relative forest extent by country in year 2000. Absolute forest extents (left column) are presented in km2 and relative forest extents (right column) are in %. A and B) Total forest extent; C and D) Protected forest extent; E and F) Intact forest extent; G and H) Protected intact forest extent.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 3 Absolute and relative forest losses by country between 2000 and 2012. Absolute forest losses (left column) are presented in km2 and relative forest losses (right column) are in %. A and B) Total forest loss; C and D) Loss in protected forests; E and F) Loss in intact forest; G and H) Loss in protected intact forests.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 4 Clustering of countries by their forest loss patterns. A) country clusters based on absolute and relative losses in total and protected forest; and B) country clusters based on intact and protected intact forest. The cluster characteristics are illustrated by radar charts, of which radii represent the variables used in the clustering. The absolute range in each variable is given next to the variables. The cluster centroids on each variable are plotted on the radii, and these centroids are connected with lines. The countries within each cluster are mapped above the corresponding radar chart and the colours both, in the radar charts and their corresponding maps, indicate the cluster in question.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 5 Comparison of forest loss between different forest types: A) Anomaly ratio for loss in protected forest and loss in non-protected forest; B) Anomaly ratio for loss in intact forest and loss in non-intact forest; C) Anomaly ratio for loss in protected intact forest and loss of non-protected intact forest (anomaly ratio <0 (>0) indicates that forest loss is lower (higher) in the protected forest type than in the non-protected forest type). Note: all the anomalies were calculated with relative losses.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Authors: Heino, M., Kummu, M., Makkonen, M., Mulligan, M., Verburg, P. H., Jalava, M., & Räsänen, T. A.
Affiliations: Aalto University (FI)
Natural Resources Institute Finland (FI)
King's College London (GB)
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
Corresponding author: Kummu, Matti
ORCID: Heino, Matias
Kummu, Matti
Makkonen, Marika
Mulligan, Mark
Verburg, Peter H.
Jalava, Mika
Räsänen, Timo A.
Venue: PLOS ONE
Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published: 2015-10-14
Volume: 10
Issue: 10
Pages: e0138918
ISSN: 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138918
PMC: PMC4605629
OpenAlex: W2211614845
Cited by: 192
References: 48
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 3
FWCI: 9.57
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Aaltodoc (Aalto University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) (submittedVersion)
Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: Academy of Finland (267463, 257919)
Aalto-Yliopisto
China Scholarship Council
FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (311819)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Forestry › Forest Management and Policy
Keywords: forest loss, protected areas, intact forest landscapes, forest cover change, protected area effectiveness, gross domestic product, agricultural land, deforestation
MeSH terms: Africa, Agriculture, Americas, Asia, Australia, Conservation of Natural Resources, Europe, Humans, Trees, Forestry, Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing Technology, Forests

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Forest Loss in Protected Areas and Intact Forest Landscapes: A Global Analysis

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