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Cited by 73Animal Behavior and Welfare StudiesWildlife Ecology and ConservationVeterinary Equine Medical Research

Elephant management in North American zoos: environmental enrichment, feeding, exercise, and training

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Greco, Brian J., Meehan, Cheryl L., Miller, Lance J., Shepherdson, David J., Morfeld, Kari A., Andrews, Jeff, Baker, Anne M., Carlstead, Kathy +1 more·2016·PLOS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0152490PMC PMC4944993
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Abstract

The management of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in zoos involves a range of practices including feeding, exercise, training, and environmental enrichment. These practices are necessary to meet the elephants' nutritional, healthcare, and husbandry needs. However, these practices are not standardized, resulting in likely variation among zoos as well as differences in the way they are applied to individual elephants within a zoo. To characterize elephant management in North America, we collected survey data from zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, developed 26 variables, generated population level descriptive statistics, and analyzed them to identify differences attributable to sex and species. Sixty-seven zoos submitted surveys describing the management of 224 elephants and the training experiences of 227 elephants. Asian elephants spent more time managed (defined as interacting directly with staff) than Africans (mean time managed: Asians = 56.9%; Africans = 48.6%; p<0.001), and managed time increased by 20.2% for every year of age for both species. Enrichment, feeding, and exercise programs were evaluated using diversity indices, with mean scores across zoos in the midrange for these measures. There were an average of 7.2 feedings every 24-hour period, with only 1.2 occurring during the nighttime. Feeding schedules were predictable at 47.5% of zoos. We also calculated the relative use of rewarding and aversive techniques employed during training interactions. The population median was seven on a scale from one (representing only aversive stimuli) to nine (representing only rewarding stimuli). The results of our study provide essential information for understanding management variation that could be relevant to welfare. Furthermore, the variables we created have been used in subsequent elephant welfare analyses.

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Authors
Greco, B. J., Meehan, C. L., Miller, L. J., Shepherdson, D. J., Morfeld, K. A., Andrews, J., Baker, A. M., Carlstead, K., & Mench, J. A.
Affiliations
  • University of California, Davis (US)
  • Brookfield Zoo Chicago (US)
  • Oregon Zoo (US)
  • Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (US)
Corresponding author
Greco, Brian J.
ORCID
Venue
PLOS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2016-07-14
Volume
11
Issue
7
Pages
e0152490
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0152490
PMC
PMC4944993
OpenAlex
W2468496484
Cited by
73
References
6
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9
FWCI
14.35
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Institute of Museum and Library Services (LG-25-10-0033-10)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Equine › Veterinary Equine Medical Research
Keywords
elephant management, zoo elephants, Loxodonta africana, Asian elephant, environmental enrichment, feeding schedule, physical activity, animal training, animal welfare, zoo animal husbandry, Association of Zoos and Aquariums, sex differences, species differences
MeSH terms
Animals, Animal Husbandry, Animal Welfare, Animals, Zoo, Elephants, Environment, Feeding Behavior, Female, Housing, Animal, Male, North America, Physical Conditioning, Animal, Social Environment

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