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Do Student Samples Provide an Accurate Estimate of the General Public?
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Most psychological studies rely on student samples. Students are usually considered as more homogenous than representative samples both within and across countries. However, little is known about the nature of the differences between student and representative samples. This is an important gap, also because knowledge about the degree of difference between student and representative samples may allow to infer from the former to the latter group. Across 59 countries and 12 personality (Big-5) and attitudinal variables we found that differences between students and general public were partly substantial, incoherent, and contradicted previous findings. Two often used cultural variables, embeddedness and intellectual autonomy, failed to explain the differences between both groups across countries. We further found that students vary as much as the general population both between and within countries. In summary, our results indicate that generalizing from students to the general public can be problematic when personal and attitudinal variables are used, as students vary mostly randomly from the general public. Findings are also discussed in terms of the replication crisis within psychology.
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“A further comment, which is true for much psychology literature (e.g., Hanel & Vione, 2016), is that most of this research depends on student samples, most commonly psychology student samples.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Hanel & Vione, 2016
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“…selected because this population is suitable for mechanism-exploration research (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2009), shows limited differences from non-student populations on cognitive and perceptual tasks, and offers sample homogeneity that helps control for demographic confounds (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“This interpretation is consistent with the work of Hanel and Vione (2016), who compared the attitudes of students and the general population in 59 countries.”
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“While this limits generalizability (Hanel & Vione, 2016), it is noteworthy that both the core assumptions of the paradigm (H1–H3) and the correlational relationships with problematic sexuality (H7) were replicated in this comparatively homogeneous sample.”
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“The sample was drawn primarily from one urban public university, significantly limiting geographic and institutional generalizability [37].”
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“However, it is not logical to apply data gathered from students—who have not yet entered the job market—to upper-level managers (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“This demographic homogeneity restricts the finding’s generalizability (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“Also, our sample mostly involves university students or young adults, mainly from a Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic (WEIRD) population, limiting the generalizability of our findings (Hanel and Vione 2016; Henrich et al. 2010).”
Guzmán-Lavín, E. J., Figueroa, O., Muñoz-Reyes, J., Aldunate, N., & Polo, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1624659
“This methodology could introduce biases into the sample, limiting the generality of the results to broader populations, because university students may not be representative of the general population (Hanel and Vione, 2016).”
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“The use of Prolific as one of the data collection methods was intended to increase the generalizability of the study findings, given that student samples may not accurately represent the broader population (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“This study shares the view that students cannot simply be assumed to be representative of the broader community (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“In addition, given that the vast majority of early research participants are taken from convenience samples [30], such as students doing co-curricular research on other projects in the same lab, the under-representation of disabled students in co-curricular research also reduces their…”
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“This approach may hinder the generalization of the experimental intervention effects to the broader population (Hanel & Vione 2016).”
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“However, future research would benefit by examining differences between police and the general population, as student populations have often been criticized for their lack of representativeness toward the general popu‑ lation (Hanel and Vione 2016; Peterson 2001).”
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“The majority of psychological and behavioral studies use student samples because students are typically seen as more uniform than representative samples (Druckman and Kam, 2011; Hanel and Vione, 2016).”
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“Another common bias of volunteer groups is that they often over-index for backgrounds with higher educational attainment and socioeconomic status [121], which is reflected in our sample.”
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“These factors, individually or in interaction, can produce variability within student samples (Hanel and Vione, 2016).”
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“This possibility also implies that these results might be specific to students of this particular field and, therefore, non-students or students of other subjects might perform and behave differently (see Hanel & Vione, 2016 for the heterogeneity of student populations).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Hanel, P. H. P., & Vione, K. C.
- Affiliations
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Hanel, Paul H. P.
- ORCID
- Hanel, Paul H. P.
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2016-12-21
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e0168354
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5176168
- OpenAlex
- W2569236205
- Cited by
- 510
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 23.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (acceptedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
- University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- The University of Bath Online Publications Store (The University of Bath) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Pure (University of Bath) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (GB) (ES/J500197/1)
- CAPES Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Representations and Identity
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Keywords
- student samples, cross-cultural comparison, Big Five personality traits, attitudes, embeddedness, intellectual autonomy, sampling bias, replication crisis, cross-national comparison
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Psychological Tests, Students, Knowledge, Young Adult
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