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Do Student Samples Provide an Accurate Estimate of the General Public?
Open accessAbstract
Most psychological studies rely on student samples. Students are usually considered as more homogenous than representative samples both within and across countries. However, little is known about the nature of the differences between student and representative samples. This is an important gap, also because knowledge about the degree of difference between student and representative samples may allow to infer from the former to the latter group. Across 59 countries and 12 personality (Big-5) and attitudinal variables we found that differences between students and general public were partly substantial, incoherent, and contradicted previous findings. Two often used cultural variables, embeddedness and intellectual autonomy, failed to explain the differences between both groups across countries. We further found that students vary as much as the general population both between and within countries. In summary, our results indicate that generalizing from students to the general public can be problematic when personal and attitudinal variables are used, as students vary mostly randomly from the general public. Findings are also discussed in terms of the replication crisis within psychology.
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“A further comment, which is true for much psychology literature (e.g., Hanel & Vione, 2016), is that most of this research depends on student samples, most commonly psychology student samples.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Hanel & Vione, 2016
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“…which is in fact a specific group of people, often sophomore year students (and often WEIRD, Western Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic, see Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010) who are not representative of the whole community, on which findings are often generalized (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“However, data suggest that generalising from students to the general public can be problematic when personal and attitudinal variables are used, as students vary mostly randomly from the general public [45].”
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“Secondly, concerns have been raised over the use and representativeness of undergraduate samples such as our small NA group (DeRight & Jorgensen, 2015; Hanel & Vione, 2016), and the reproducibility of such findings (Peterson & Merunka, 2014).”
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“First, we used convenience student samples in both studies, which may differ from representative samples of the general population in terms of certain characteristics (e.g., personality traits, Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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“…students demonstrate a moderately good estimate of representativeness (e.g. Fischer and Schwartz 2011), a recent study comparing college student samples and the public implies that generalising from students to the general public within social psychology could be problematic (Hanel and Vione 2016).”
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“This study addresses the critics on engaging student samples as participants (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
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Styck, K. M., Rodriguez, M., & Yi, E. H. (2020) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/1073191120953628 · Cited by 9
“There is also some evidence that research conducted with convenience samples of college students may not generalize to adult community samples (e.g., Hanel & Vione, 2016; Peterson & Merunka, 2014).”
BackgroundBartel, A., Jordan, J. T., Correll, D., Devane, A., & Samuelson, K. W. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22855 · Cited by 12
Devenney, L. E., Coyle, K. B., & Verster, J. C. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2019.100197 · Cited by 12
“This limitation is not unique to hangover research but seen across the fi eld of psychological research (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
BackgroundThe ubiquity of the gender/sex binary: power and status in social psychology
Means, K. K., & Morgenroth, T. (2024) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2024.1455364 · Cited by 8
Klein, H. S., Springfield, C. R., & Pinkham, A. (2024) · Applied neuropsychology. Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2022.2082875 · Cited by 8
“In addition to being younger and more educated than the general public, undergraduate students tend to have higher socioeconomic status, challenging the generalizability of findings from research using these samples (Hanel & Vione, 2016; Henrich et al., 2010).”
Grave, A., Neven, L., & Mohammadi, M. (2024) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2024.2359759 · Cited by 8
“However, generalising results from student participants to the general public can be problematic and must, therefore, be done with care (Hanel and Vione 2016).”
Fernández, D., Orazzo, E., Fry, E. K., McMain, A., Ryan, M. K., Wong, C. Y., & Begeny, C. T. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1235065 · Cited by 12
Mock Juror Perceptions of a Male or Female Adult Rape Victim Crying in the Courtroom
Pals, A. M., Levi, M. M., Meier, J. R., Jenkins, B. D., Grand, A. M. L., & Golding, J. M. (2023) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012231166404 · Cited by 9
“…Administrative Of fi ce of the United States Courts, n.d.; Federal Court of Australia, 2021; NI Direct, n.d.), and people of student age are younger than the mean age of the jury pool (e.g., Anwar et al., 2014) with different accumulated experiences affecting their worldview (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
BackgroundPsychometric study of the differentiation of self scale-revised in a sample of Spanish adults
Oliver, J., Jódar, R., Berástegui, A., Skowron, E. A., Friedlander, M. L., & Schmitt, T. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02929-y · Cited by 8
“Although psychology student’s overrepresentation is a common feature of psychological research (Hanel & Vione, 2016), we acknowledge that these sampling bias can make our results mainly valid for women and highly educated populations.”
BackgroundBattle of the primes – The effect and interplay of health and hedonic primes on food choice
Bauer, J. M., van der Laan, L. N., de Bruijn, G., & Reisch, L. A. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.105956 · Cited by 9
“The samples of many previous studies were limited and consisted of, for instance university students which may have a distinct response to the experimental manipulations (Cappelen et al., 2015; Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
BackgroundGaur, R. (2019) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2019.1627888 · Cited by 13
Attitudes toward condom carriers: The role of gender
Leung, P., & MacDonald, T. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality · doi:10.3138/cjhs.2018-0003 · Cited by 8
Exploring Entrepreneurial Alertness and Entrepreneurial Intention in times of the Covid-19 Pandemic
Arnaut, D., Stanić, M., & Bećirović, D. (2022) · Management · doi:10.30924/mjcmi.27.1.13 · Cited by 8
“The use of college students as respondents in studies on entrepreneurial intentions, although very common, may limit the generalizability of research findings, especially when per - sonal and attitudinal variables are examined (Hanel & Vione, 2016).”
Yepes, T. G., Etchezahar, E., Genol, M. A. A., & Ungaretti, J. (2025) · Ciencias Psicológicas · doi:10.22235/cp.v19i1.4031 · Cited by 7
“According to Hanel and Vione (2016), the lack of representation of experiences from the general population may lead to biases in assessment, especially when it is the reference scale in most studies.”
Cultural Capital Signaling and Class-Related Selection Biases in Employment and Education
Guzman, L., Stancato, D. M., Chen, S., & Keltner, D. J. (2025) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2025.2467273 · Cited by 7
Perspective‐taking predicts success in coalition formation
Cantiani, A., van Beest, I., Cruijssen, F., Kant, G., & Erle, T. M. (2024) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3091 · Cited by 8
López-Fernández, F. J., Mezquita, L., Vidal-Arenas, V., Michelini, Y., Bravo, A. J., Pilatti, A., Ortet, G., & Ibáñez, M. I. (2024) · Addictive Behaviours · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108049 · Cited by 7
Ballinger, T., Canevello, A., Crocker, J., Jiang, T., & Quinn, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12543 · Cited by 7
Luong, R. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101828 · Cited by 8
Gabbiadini, A., Riva, P., Andrighetto, L., Volpato, C., & Bushman, B. J. (2021) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12854 · Cited by 12
Centrality of Religiosity, Schizotypy, and Human Values: The Impact of Religious Affiliation
Hanel, P., Demmrich, S., & Wolfradt, U. (2019) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel10050297 · Cited by 7
Self-citationKartheiser, G., Cormier, K., Bell-Souder, D., Dye, M., & Sharma, A. (2024) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2024.109074 · Cited by 25
Zeißig, A., Kansok‐Dusche, J., Fischer, S. M., Moeller, J., & Bilz, L. (2024) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.3470 · Cited by 11
Holtz, B. E., Mitchell, K., Adams, R., Grier, C., & Wright, J. (2024) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2024.2318546 · Cited by 6
“These interactions cause students to have a different relationship with academic research than persons outside the academy (Hanel et al., 2016.”
Bonding Through Language Imitation: Influence of Social Ostracism on Structural Priming
Li, H. (2023) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x231151408 · Cited by 6
“Thus, it may be problematic to generalize research results from students to the rest of population when personal and social factors are involved (Hanel & Vione, 2016; Li & Shen, 2022).”
BackgroundUniversity Students’ Sexual Identity Development as a Determinant of Sexual Self-Hood
Rye, B., & Hertz, S. G. (2022) · Sexes · doi:10.3390/sexes3030035 · Cited by 6
“We cannot generalize from a student sample to the general population; students are somewhat more sexually liberal in their attitudes compared to the general public, but students are heterogeneous in these attitudes relative to representative samples [43].”
BackgroundVoter Evaluations of Biracial-Identified Political Candidates
Leslie, G., Masuoka, N., Gaither, S., dos Remédios, J. L., & Vinluan, A. C. (2022) · The social science · doi:10.3390/socsci11040171 · Cited by 6
“It is therefore important to acknowledge the possible limitations associated with snowball sampling and college-student samples, especially in terms of generalizability (Dosek 2021; Peterson 2001; Hanel and Vione 2016).”
BackgroundCokley, K., Krueger, N. T., Garba, R., Bailey, M., Harris, K. J., Hall, S., Coleman, C. A., & Archer, J. (2022) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984211070216 · Cited by 12
“Most psychological studies are conducted on student samples (Hanel & Vione, 2016), which raises questions of generalizability beyond students.”
BackgroundThe Effect of Countermeasure Readability on Security Intentions
Smit, T., van Haastrecht, M., & Spruit, M. (2021) · Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy · doi:10.3390/jcp1040034 · Cited by 6
“Hanel and Vione [83] note that “generalizing from students to the general public can be problematic when personal and attitudinal variables are used.””
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hanel, P. H. P., & Vione, K. C.
- Affiliations
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Hanel, Paul H. P.
- ORCID
- Hanel, Paul H. P.
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2016-12-21
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e0168354
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5176168
- OpenAlex
- W2569236205
- Cited by
- 510
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 23.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (acceptedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
- University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- The University of Bath Online Publications Store (The University of Bath) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Pure (University of Bath) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (GB) (ES/J500197/1)
- CAPES Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Representations and Identity
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Keywords
- student samples, cross-cultural comparison, Big Five personality traits, attitudes, embeddedness, intellectual autonomy, sampling bias, replication crisis, cross-national comparison
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Psychological Tests, Students, Knowledge, Young Adult
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