COVID-19 and mental health deterioration by ethnicity and gender in the UK
Open accessAbstract
We use the UK Household Longitudinal Study and compare pre-COVID-19 pandemic (2017-2019) and during-COVID-19 pandemic data (April 2020) for the same group of individuals to assess and quantify changes in mental health as measured by changes in the GHQ-12 (General Health Questionnaire), among ethnic groups in the UK. We confirm the previously documented average deterioration in mental health for the whole sample of individuals interviewed before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, we find that the average increase in mental distress varies by ethnicity and gender. Both women –regardless of their ethnicity– and Black, Asian, and minority ethnic (BAME) men experienced a higher average increase in mental distress than White British men, so that the gender gap in mental health increases only among White British individuals. These ethnic-gender specific changes in mental health persist after controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Finally, we find some evidence that, among men, Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani individuals have experienced the highest average increase in mental distress with respect to White British men.
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The higher depressive and anxiety scores may be due to worsening mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic.
“possibly due to worsening mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic [16].”
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Blanchflower, D. G., & Bryson, A. (2023) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-023-01628-5 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Proto and Quintana-Domeque (2021), Pierce et al. (2021) and Banks et al. (2021) also found increases in mental distress in the UK, measured with the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) scores in the UK Household Longitudinal Survey (UKHLS), that were greater among women than they were…”
van der Velden, P. G., Marchand, M. A. G., Das, M., Muffels, R. J. A., & Bosmans, M. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114528 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The local and global mental health effects of the Covid-19 pandemic
Akay, A. (2022) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101095 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Women's mental health and COVID-19: increased vulnerability and inequalities
Arilha, M., Carvalho, A. P., Forster, T. A., Rodrigues, C. V. M., Briguglio, B., & Serruya, S. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Global Women s Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2024.1414355 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The gendered crisis: livelihoods and mental well-being in India during COVID-19
Afridi, F., Dhillon, A., & Roy, S. (2021) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2021/003-0 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Dewidar, O., Shamseer, L., Meléndez‐Torres, G. J., Akl, E. A., Ramke, J., Wang, X., Oloyede, O., Young, T., Nicholls, S. G., Marshall, Z., et al. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-083882 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“158 “We included 3,574,903 individuals who did not have atrial fibrillation at index age 45 years or older, of whom 1,727,703 were men (48.3”
InfluentialBeing on the Frontline? Immigrant Workers in Europe and the COVID-19 Pandemic
Fasani, F., & Mazza, J. (2023) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.1177/00197939231173676 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Recovery in Mind: A Recovery College's journey through the Covid‐19 pandemic
Yoeli, H., Ryan, A., Hensby, C., Habermehl, F., Burton, S., & Sin, J. (2022) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13635 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The pandemic has led to increasing symptoms and declining well‐being for people with pre‐existing mental ill‐health.(5,6) Both people with and without pre‐existing mental health needs reported finding mental health support more difficult to access and engage with.”
BackgroundPredicting Psychological Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Do Socioeconomic Factors Matter?
Bakkeli, N. Z. (2022) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393211069622 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Ethnic minorities also have a substantially higher risk of poor health compared to the majority population (Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundSuicidal ideation in men during COVID-19: an examination of protective factors
Seidler, Z. E., Wilson, M. J., Oliffe, J. L., Fisher, K., O’Connor, R. C., Pirkis, J., & Rice, S. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04539-9 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Such research is particularly warranted in the context of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, where enforced isolation, unemployment and interpersonal strain has led to an emerging and ongoing mental health burden [5, 6].”
BackgroundDoes caring for others affect our mental health? Evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic
Costi, C., Hollingsworth, B. P., O’Sullivan, V., & Zucchelli, E. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115721 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hauck, A., Michael, T., & de Sá, D. S. F. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.07.068 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Arundell, L.-L., Saunders, R., Buckman, J. E. J., Lewis, G., Stott, J. C. H., Singh, S., Jena, R., Naqvi, S. A., Leibowitz, J., & Pilling, S. (2024) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-024-02610-8 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“These findings might be understood in terms of the intersecting gender and ethnicity characteristics that may be differentially impacted by societal or cultural factors contributing to differences in outcomes [20, 48].”
BackgroundMental health in Germany before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic
Patzina, A., Collischon, M., Hoffmann, R., & Obrizan, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0313689 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
James, M., Jones, H. E., Baig, A., Marchant, E., Waites, T., Todd, C., Hughes, K. E., & Brophy, S. T. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0260640 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Sheriff, R. S., Vuorre, M., Riga, E., Przybylski, A. K., Adams, H., Harmer, C. J., & Geddes, J. R. (2022) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674221115648 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Some YP have been affected more than others, including marginalised groups such as ethnic minorities (Abramovich et al., 2021; Bray et al., 2021; Proto and Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundBortel, T. V. V., Lombardo, C., Guo, L., Solomon, S., Martin, S. A., Hughes, K., Weeks, L., Crepaz‐Keay, D., McDaid, S., Chantler, O., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.875198 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
McIvor, C., Vafai, Y., Kelly, B., O’Toole, S. E., Heys, M., Badrick, E., Iqbal, H., Pickett, K. E., Cameron, C., & Dickerson, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192114316 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lenoir, R., & Wong, K. K. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-071903 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Proto, E., & Quintana‐Domeque, C. (2022) · The B E Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy · doi:10.1515/bejeap-2021-0394 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of social capital deprivation for wellbeing: Evidence from the Covid-19 pandemic
Slater, G. (2024) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2024.101395 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The trajectory of mental health problems for UK emerging adults during COVID-19
Thorpe, W. J. R., & Gutman, L. M. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.10.068 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“For ethnicity, in a study comparing pre-pandemic and pandemic data for the same group of individuals, Black, Asian, and Minority (BAME) men from the UK experienced a higher increase in mental distress compared to White British men during the first lockdown (Proto and Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundMueller, J., Richards, R., Jones, R. A., Whittle, F., Woolston, J., Stubbings, M., Sharp, S. J., Griffin, S. J., Bostock, J., Hughes, C. A., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-022-01232-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Stepanova, E., Croke, S., Yu, G., Bifarin, O. O., Panagioti, M., & Fu, Y. (2025) · BMJ Mental Health · doi:10.1136/bmjment-2024-301481 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Participants were recruited through local community organisations supporting ethnic minorities, with study information sent to 19 organisations in NENC and 8 in the North West and Merseyside.”
Plenty, S. M., Bracegirdle, C., Dollmann, J., & Spiegler, O. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-021-00418-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“However, longitudinal studies among adults have found few group differences in decreases in mental well-being between pre-pandemic (2017–2019) and pandemic (April 2020) assessments [5, 39, 45].”
BackgroundSelf-Compassion during COVID-19 in Non-WEIRD Countries: A Narrative Review
Kotera, Y., Kirkman, A., Beaumont, J., Komorowska, M. A., Such, E., Kaneda, Y., & Rushforth, A. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11142016 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Amongst the male population, Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani individuals experienced the highest increase in the UK [8].”
BackgroundMoreno‐Agostino, D., Fisher, H. L., Hatch, S. L., Morgan, C., Ploubidis, G. B., & Das‐Munshi, J. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722003348 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…anxiety increased in the population, with younger people, women, those in disadvantaged SEP, and those with pre-existing mental health conditions being disproportionately impacted (Kwong et al., 2021; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021; Patel et al., 2022; Pierce et al., 2020; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundOtten, D., Heller, A., Schmidt, P. S., Beutel, M. E., & Brähler, E. (2023) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-023-02479-z · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Other studies also confirmed this, e.g., women reporting higher mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic than men [89, 90].”
ResultGizdic, A., Baxter, T., Barrantes-Vidal, N., & Park, S. (2023) · Psychiatry Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.psycom.2023.100126 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gao, X., Davillas, A., & Jones, A. M. (2022) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4480 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Psychological Wellbeing and Associated Factors Among Ethnic Minorities During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Wong, C. L., Leung, A. W. Y., Chan, D. N. S., Chow, K. M., Chan, C. W. H., Ng, M. S. N., & So, W. K. W. (2022) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-022-01347-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Data on ethnic minorities and their psychological wellbeing during COVID-19 are scarce and equivocal [20, 21].”
BackgroundMuscat, D. M., Ayre, J., Mac, O. A., Batcup, C., Cvejic, E., Pickles, K. M., Dolan, H., Bonner, C., Mouwad, D., Zachariah, D., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058323 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Chan, H. F., Cheng, Z., Mendolia, S., Paloyo, A. R., Tani, M., Proulx, D., Savage, D. A., & Torgler, B. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-51854-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Time use and happiness: Evidence across three decades
Han, J., & Kaiser, C. (2021) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-024-00982-4 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Hamza, M., Edwards, R. C., Beaumont, J. D., Pretto, L. D., & Torn, A. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117265 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Blasi, M. D., Albano, G., Bassi, G., Mancinelli, E., Giordano, C., Mazzeschi, C., Pazzagli, C., Salcuni, S., Coco, G. L., Gelo, O. C. G., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111656 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Sels, L., Galdiolo, S., Gaugue, J., Géonet, M., Verhelst, P., Chiarolanza, C., Randall, A. K., & Verhofstadt, L. (2022) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1088 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“For example, in the UK, women have reported worse mental health outcomes than men (e.g., O’ Connor, et al., 2021; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundZhang, X., Xiao, Y., Xu, P., & Dong, S. (2025) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909251324571 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Evidence from numerous studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic also suggests that women have experienced disproportionately higher levels of mental health distress compared to their male counterparts (Mir et al., 2023; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021; Saw et al., 2022; Xiong et al., 2020).”
Baxter, T., Shenoy, S., Lee, H.-S., Griffith, T., Rivas-Baxter, A., & Park, S. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221140285 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Proto, E., & Quintana-Domeque, C.
- Affiliations
- IZA - Institute of Labor Economics (DE)
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2021-01-06
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e0244419
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7787387
- OpenAlex
- W3120271639
- Cited by
- 297
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 2 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 41.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Knowledge@UChicago (University of Chicago) (submittedVersion)
- University of Chicago (cc-by)
- Funders
- University of Essex
- University of Exeter
- University of Liverpool
- University of Queensland
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Employment and Welfare Studies
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, mental health deterioration, psychological distress, ethnic differences, gender differences, Black, Asian and minority ethnic groups, UK Household Longitudinal Study, GHQ-12
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Mental Disorders, Ethnicity, Female, United Kingdom, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Minority Groups, Racial Groups, Pandemics
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