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Cited by 141Motivation and Self-Concept in SportsPerfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety StudiesEducation during COVID-19 pandemic

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Distance learning in higher education during COVID-19: The role of basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation for persistence and procrastination–a multi-country study

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Pelikan, Elisabeth R., Korlat, Selma, Reiter, Julia, Holzer, Julia, Mayerhofer, Martin, Schober, Barbara, Spiel, Christiane, Hamzallari, Oriola, Uka, Ana, Chen, Jiarui, Välimäki, Maritta, Puharić, Zrinka, Anusionwu, Kelechi Evans, Okocha, Angela Nkem, Zabrodskaja, Anastassia, Salmela-Aro, Katariina, Käser, Udo, Schultze-Krumbholz, Anja, Wachs, Sebastian, Friðriksson, Finnur, Gunnþórsdóttir, Hermína, Höller, Yvonne, Aoyama, Ikuko, Ieshima, Akihiko, Toda, Yuichi, Konjufca, Jon, Llullaku, Njomza, Gedutienė, Reda, Borg Axisa, Glorianne, Avirovic Bundalevska, Irena, Keskinova, Angelka, Radulovic, Makedonka, Lewandowska-Walter, Aleksandra, Michałek-Kwiecień, Justyna, Plichta, Piotr, Pyżalski, Jacek, Walter, Natalia, Cautisanu, Cristina, Voda, Ana Iolanda, Gao, Shang, Islam, Sirajul, Wistrand, Kai, Wright, Michelle F., Lüftenegger, Marko·2021·PLOS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257346PMC PMC8494346
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Abstract

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, higher educational institutions worldwide switched to emergency distance learning in early 2020. The less structured environment of distance learning forced students to regulate their learning and motivation more independently. According to self-determination theory (SDT), satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and social relatedness affects intrinsic motivation, which in turn relates to more active or passive learning behavior. As the social context plays a major role for basic need satisfaction, distance learning may impair basic need satisfaction and thus intrinsic motivation and learning behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between basic need satisfaction and procrastination and persistence in the context of emergency distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in a cross-sectional study. We also investigated the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in this relationship. Furthermore, to test the universal importance of SDT for intrinsic motivation and learning behavior under these circumstances in different countries, we collected data in Europe, Asia and North America. A total of N = 15,462 participants from Albania, Austria, China, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Kosovo, Lithuania, Poland, Malta, North Macedonia, Romania, Sweden, and the US answered questions regarding perceived competence, autonomy, social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, persistence, and sociodemographic background. Our results support SDT’s claim of universality regarding the relation between basic psychological need fulfilment, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence. However, whereas perceived competence had the highest direct effect on procrastination and persistence, social relatedness was mainly influential via intrinsic motivation.

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Fig 1 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination (left) and persistence (right). Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).
Fig 1 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination (left) and persistence (right). Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 2 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination (left) and persistence (right), mediated by intrinsic motivation. Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).
Fig 2 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination (left) and persistence (right), mediated by intrinsic motivation. Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 3 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived competence on procrastination (left) and persistence (right). Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).
Fig 3 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived competence on procrastination (left) and persistence (right). Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 4 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived competence on procrastination (left) and persistence (right), mediated by intrinsic motivation. Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).
Fig 4 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived competence on procrastination (left) and persistence (right), mediated by intrinsic motivation. Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 5 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived social relatedness on procrastination (left) and persistence (right). Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).
Fig 5 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived social relatedness on procrastination (left) and persistence (right). Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 6 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived social relatedness on procrastination (left) and persistence (right), mediated by intrinsic motivation. Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).
Fig 6 Unstandardized coefficients and two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived social relatedness on procrastination (left) and persistence (right), mediated by intrinsic motivation. Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 7 Latent structural path model of the direct effects between perceived autonomy, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence, with average coefficients across all countries. ***p = < .001.
Fig 7 Latent structural path model of the direct effects between perceived autonomy, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence, with average coefficients across all countries. ***p = < .001.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 8 Latent structural path model of the direct effects between perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence, with average coefficients across all countries. ***p = < .001.
Fig 8 Latent structural path model of the direct effects between perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence, with average coefficients across all countries. ***p = < .001.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig 9 Latent structural path model of the direct effects between perceived social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence, with average coefficients across all countries. ***p = < .001.
Fig 9 Latent structural path model of the direct effects between perceived social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence, with average coefficients across all countries. ***p = < .001.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. ER Pelikan, 2021, Distance Learning in Higher Education During COVID-19: Basic Psychological Needs and Intrinsic Motivation
  2. A Glöckner-Rist, 2014, In: Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen [Summary of items and scales in social science] ZIS Version 1300

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Authors
Pelikan, E. R., Korlat, S., Reiter, J., Holzer, J., Mayerhofer, M., Schober, B., Spiel, C., Hamzallari, O., Uka, A., Chen, J., Välimäki, M., Puharić, Z., Anusionwu, K. E., Okocha, A. N., Zabrodskaja, A., Salmela-Aro, K., Käser, U., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Wachs, S., Friðriksson, F., Gunnþórsdóttir, H., Höller, Y., Aoyama, I., Ieshima, A., Toda, Y., Konjufca, J., Llullaku, N., Gedutienė, R., Borg Axisa, G., Avirovic Bundalevska, I., Keskinova, A., Radulovic, M., Lewandowska-Walter, A., Michałek-Kwiecień, J., Plichta, P., Pyżalski, J., Walter, N., Cautisanu, C., Voda, A. I., Gao, S., Islam, S., Wistrand, K., Wright, M. F., & Lüftenegger, M.
Affiliations
  • University of Vienna (AT)
  • Aleksandër Moisiu University (AL)
  • Bedër University (AL)
  • Central South University (CN)
  • Veleučilište u Bjelovaru (HR)
  • Tallinn University (EE)
  • University of Bonn (DE)
  • University of Potsdam (DE)
  • University of Akureyri (IS)
  • Tsuru University (JP)
  • The University of Osaka (JP)
  • Osaka Kyoiku University (JP)
  • University of Prishtina (XK)
  • Klaipėda University (LT)
  • Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje (MK)
  • University of Gdańsk (PL)
  • University of Wrocław (PL)
  • Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań (PL)
  • Örebro University (SE)
  • Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author
Pelikan, Elisabeth R.
ORCID
Venue
PLOS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2021-10-06
Volume
16
Issue
10
Pages
e0257346
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0257346
PMC
PMC8494346
OpenAlex
W3202963999
Cited by
141
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 1
FWCI
25.23
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UTUPub (University of Turku) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • UTUPub (University of Turku) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
  • publish.UP (University of Potsdam) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • academy of finland (308351, 336138, 345117)
  • Vienna Science and Technology Fund (COV20-025)
  • MEGA Bildungsstiftung (COV20-025)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
Keywords
distance education, COVID-19 pandemic, self-determination theory, basic psychological needs, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, persistence, perceived competence, autonomy, social relatedness, learning behavior, cross-cultural universality
MeSH terms
Procrastination, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Cross-Sectional Studies, Europe, Female, Humans, Male, Motivation, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities, Education, Distance, Personal Autonomy, Young Adult, Pandemics

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