Difference in predictors and barriers to arts and cultural engagement with age in the United States: A cross-sectional analysis using the Health and Retirement Study

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There have been reports of declining arts participation with age in the United States.

“There have been reports of declining arts participation with age in the United States (US) as well [17–19].”

• cites [17] Welch V, Kim Y. Race / ethnicity and Arts participation in the Arts. Analysis. 2010;Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [18] Rabkin N, Hedberg EC. Arts education in America: What the declines mean for arts participation. Arts Education in America: Declines and the Need for Reinvestment. 2012;1–57. sourceDisputed

  In the Adult arts education section (page not provided), the report says benchmark arts attendance rises with age: in 2008, adults aged 55 or older were the most likely to attend. The Introduction reports a decline in participation over time, not a decline as people age. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [19] National Endowment for the Arts. How a Nation Engages With Art: Highlights from the 2012 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts. Washington, DC; 2013.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the United Kingdom, arts participation declines noticeably beginning around age 65, with the steepest declines for individuals over 85.

“In the United Kingdom (UK) studies have shown noticeable declines in arts participation beginning around age 65 [14], with the steepest declines for individuals over 85 [14, 15].”

• cites [14] E Keaney, 2007, The Golden Age of the Arts? Taking Part Survey Findings on Older People and the Arts, Cultural Trends sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [15] D Fancourt, 2020, What barriers do people experience to engaging in the arts? Structural equation modelling of the relationship between individual characteristics and capabilities, opportunities, and motivations to engage, PLOS ONE sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports that arts participation is lower among older adults, especially those over 85. It does not identify age 65 as the point when participation begins to decline or establish the steepness of that decline. The Discussion also notes that this paper's own analysis found fewer barriers with increasing age, while leaving barriers in older age specifically unresolved. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Similar trends are seen with cultural attendance alongside declines in physical activity.

“Similar trends are seen with cultural attendance (such as visiting museums, historic parks and gardens) alongside declines in physical activity [16].”

• cites [16] HW Mak, 2020, Does arts and cultural engagement vary geographically? Evidence from the UK household longitudinal study, Public Health sourcePartly supported

  The Methods (Measures; page unavailable) identify museum and heritage-site visits as forms of cultural engagement, and the Discussion reports geographic differences in that engagement. The paper does not report a decline in cultural attendance alongside declining physical activity; its Introduction mentions physical activity only as another behaviour that may be influenced by population composition. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There is little evidence of predictors of arts and cultural engagement changing over time, with predictors in the 1990s showing very high levels of similarity to predictors in the 2010s.

“Additionally, it has been demonstrated that there is little evidence of predictors of arts and cultural engagement changing over time, with predictors in the 1990s showing very high levels of similarity to predictors in the 2010s [25].”

• cites [25] Bone J, Bu F, Fluharty M, Paul E, Sonke J, Fancourt D. Who engages in the arts in the United States? A comparison of three types of engagement using data from the General Social Survey. unpublished. 2021; sourcePartly supported

  The “Change across survey years” section reports no evidence that most tested associations changed over time, supporting the broad claim of stability. But it also finds changes in how sex and race relate to event attendance, including a widening racial disparity; it does not establish uniformly high similarity between predictors in the 1990s and 2010s. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gender differences in engagement have been observed, which may increase with age, with women in older age groups more likely to attend arts events than men.

“Gender differences in engagement have also been observed, which may increase with age, with women in older age groups more likely to attend arts events than men [16].”

• cites [16] HW Mak, 2020, Does arts and cultural engagement vary geographically? Evidence from the UK household longitudinal study, Public Health sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) reports previous research suggesting gender differences in arts engagement, with women more likely to engage. It does not say that the difference increases with age or that older women are more likely than older men to attend arts events; the Results > Demographics section reports age and gender separately without that comparison. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

A number of sociodemographic disparities in arts and cultural engagement have been identified, often amplified in older age, including illness and disability, living alone, lower educational attainment, ethnic minority status, and living in areas with high levels of poverty.

“A number of sociodemographic disparities in arts and cultural engagement have also been identified, which are often amplified in older age [14, 20]. These include illness and disability [21], living alone [21], lower educational attainment [21–23], ethnic minority status [24], and living in areas with high levels of poverty [16].”

• cites [14] E Keaney, 2007, The Golden Age of the Arts? Taking Part Survey Findings on Older People and the Arts, Cultural Trends sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [20] D Fancourt, 2019, Cultural engagement and mental health: Does socio-economic status explain the association?, Soc Sci Med sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes a social gradient in cultural engagement, and Results > Study 1 shows disparities by education, wealth and occupational status among adults aged 50 and above (page unavailable). The cited paper does not show that these disparities are amplified in older age; the other listed disparities are attached to different citations in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [21] Informing change: Taking Part in the arts | Arts Council England [Internet]. [cited 2020 Dec 1]. https://www.artscouncil.org.uk/publication/informing-change-taking-part-artsNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [24] Mak HW, Coulter R, Fancourt D. Patterns of social inequality in arts and cultural participation: Findings from a nationally representative sample of adults living in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.: 14.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Similar general population findings have identified these socioeconomic differences.

“Similar general population findings have also identified these socioeconomic differences [15]”

• cites [15] D Fancourt, 2020, What barriers do people experience to engaging in the arts? Structural equation modelling of the relationship between individual characteristics and capabilities, opportunities, and motivations to engage, PLOS ONE sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many demographic and health predictors of age-related arts participation, such as gender and difficulty with iADL in older ages, have previously been associated with reduced likelihood of engagement.

“many of which such as gender and difficulty with iADL in older ages have previously been associated with reduced likelihood of engagement [7, 13, 14].”

• cites [7] D Fancourt, 2018, Cultural engagement and cognitive reserve: museum attendance and dementia incidence over a 10-year period, The British Journal of Psychiatry sourcePartly supported

  The Method (Measures; page unavailable) says age, education and wealth were used to predict cultural engagement, and lists gender as a demographic covariate. It does not report that gender or difficulty with instrumental activities of daily living (iADL) was associated with a reduced likelihood of engagement. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [13] D Fancourt, 2019, The art of life and death: 14 year follow-up analyses of associations between arts engagement and mortality in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing, BMJ sourceSupported
• cites [14] E Keaney, 2007, The Golden Age of the Arts? Taking Part Survey Findings on Older People and the Arts, Cultural Trends sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

All analyses were weighted according to age, race/ethnicity, education, and state in the US population to account for unequal sampling.

“All analyses were weighted according to age, race/ethnicity, education, and state in the US population to account for unequal sampling [33].”

• cites [33] Ofstedal MB, Weir D, Chen K-T (Jack). Updates to HRS Sample Weights [Internet]. Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan; 2011 [cited 2020 Dec 12]. http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/sitedocs/userg/dr-013.pdf sourcePartly supported

  The Overview of Sample Design and Sample Weights (page not specified) says HRS weights account for unequal selection probabilities and describes post-stratification by age and race/ethnicity. It does not identify education or state as weighting factors; it instead mentions gender and geographic adjustment by primary sampling unit. The source also cannot establish that the citing authors weighted all their analyses. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Arts and cultural appreciation are known to enhance social capital.

“Arts and cultural appreciation are known to enhance social capital [40]”

• cites [40] W Pinxten, 2014, The importance of economic, social and cultural capital in understanding health inequalities: using a Bourdieu-based approach in research on physical and mental health perceptions, Sociology of Health & Illness sourceCould not verify

  The Cultural capital section links cultural participation and aesthetic experiences to health, while the Social capital section defines social capital as a network-based resource. Neither says that arts or cultural appreciation enhances social capital. The Discussion says the study cannot assess how people convert one form of capital into another. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A social gradient associated with interested non-attendance in the arts has been observed, with additional barriers such as finances, lack of time, and transportation difficulties.

“A social gradient associated with interested non-attendance in the arts has been observed, with a number of additional barriers to engagement such as finances, lack of time, and transportation difficulties [25].”

• cites [25] Bone J, Bu F, Fluharty M, Paul E, Sonke J, Fancourt D. Who engages in the arts in the United States? A comparison of three types of engagement using data from the General Social Survey. unpublished. 2021; sourceSupported

The quote only partly states this claim.

Those in both the 60-69 and 70+ age groups were more likely to participate at least weekly if they had higher educational attainment.

“Those in both the 60–69 and 70+ age groups were more likely to participate at least weekly if they had higher educational attainment and were not satisfied with aging.”

May combine two claims.

Certain factors became predictors or stronger predictors of arts participation as people aged, including gender, higher educational attainment, dissatisfaction with aging, difficulties with iADLs, and cognition.

“However, there was evidence that certain factors become predictors or became stronger predictors as people aged, such as gender, higher educational attainment, dissatisfaction with aging, difficulties with instrumental activities of daily living (iADLs), and cognition.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The cross-sectional age differences observed reflect age-related change (aging) rather than cohort or period effects.

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Those in both the 60-69 and 70+ age groups were less likely to participate in the arts if they were unable to do iADLs, and difficulties with iADLs if aged 70+.

“They were also less likely to participate in the arts if they were men and were unable to do iADLs (and difficulties with iADLs if aged 70+).”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Those in both the 60-69 and 70+ age groups were less likely to participate in the arts if they were men.

“They were also less likely to participate in the arts if they were men and were unable to do iADLs (and difficulties with iADLs if aged 70+).”

May combine two claims.

Higher educational attainment and more frequent religious service attendance became predictors of cultural event attendance as people aged.

“whereas higher educational attainment and more frequent religious service attendance became predictors as people aged.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The cross-sectional age differences observed reflect age-related change (aging) rather than cohort or period effects.

May combine two claims.

In the sample used to examine frequency of arts participation (N = 7,523), 88.2% reported weekly or more participation in the arts, and 11.8% reported less than weekly participation.

“A majority (88.2%) reported weekly or more participation in the arts, and 11.8% reported less than weekly participation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Engaging in the arts has a range of health benefits, from supporting social determinants of health and playing a role in the prevention of mental and physical illness, to assisting in the management and treatment of various health conditions.

“A recent report by the World Health Organization found evidence that engaging in the arts has a range of health benefits, from supporting social determinants of health and playing a role in the prevention of mental and physical illness, to assisting in the management and treatment of various health conditions [1].”

• cites [1] Fancourt D, Finn S, World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Health Evidence Network. What is the evidence on the role of the arts in improving health and well-being?: a scoping review [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Nov 25]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553773/Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Arts engagement involves active ingredients known to be health promoting, including sensory activation, cognitive stimulation, reduced sedentary behaviour, and social interaction.

“Arts engagement is a ubiquitous human behaviour that involves a number of ‘active ingredients’ that are known to be health promoting, including sensory activation, cognitive stimulation, a reduction in sedentary behaviours, and social interaction [1, 2].”

• cites [1] Fancourt D, Finn S, World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Health Evidence Network. What is the evidence on the role of the arts in improving health and well-being?: a scoping review [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Nov 25]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553773/Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [2] Council NR. Subjective Well-Being: Measuring Happiness, Suffering, and Other Dimensions of Experience [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2020 Dec 2]. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18548/subjective-well-being-measuring-happiness-suffering-and-other-dimensions-ofNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Of the 1,500 respondents invited to the Culture and Arts module, 1,496 (99.7%) took part, and 1,465 (97.9%) had non-missing data on the other three outcomes.

“Of the 1,500 respondents recruited, 1,496 participants (99.7%) took part. Of these, 1,465 (97.9%) had non-missing data on our other three outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Previous studies suggest age-related barriers to arts participation include poor health, lack of time, and interest, and barriers to arts event attendance include costs, no one to attend with, and lack of transportation.

“However, evidence from previous studies has suggested some age related barriers to arts participation (such as poor health, lack of time, and interest) and attendance of arts events (such as costs, no one to attend with, and lack of transportation) [14].”

• cites [14] E Keaney, 2007, The Golden Age of the Arts? Taking Part Survey Findings on Older People and the Arts, Cultural Trends sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some survey questions were quite broadly phrased and are therefore difficult to make strong inferences from the data.

“Additionally, some survey questions were quite broadly phrased and are therefore difficult to make strong inferences from the data based on potential variation in interpretation across participations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

We ran a sensitivity analysis including neutral along with agree and found results to be largely consistent with the current results with the additional inclusion of iADLs.

“However, we ran a sensitivity analysis including neutral along with agree and found results to be largely consistent with the current results with the additional inclusion of iADLs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Multiple imputation by chained equations was conducted to address missing data in exposures, resulting in 50 imputed datasets.

“Multiple imputation by chained equations (MICE) was conducted to address missing data in exposures, resulting in 50 imputed datasets.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A sensitivity analysis was conducted by collapsing the outcome variable into 'neutral/agree vs disagree' and results were largely the same with the addition that those with difficulties in iADLs were less likely to report difficulties participating in the arts.

“A sensitivity analysis was conducted by collapsing the outcome variable into ‘neutral/agree vs disagree’ (as opposed to neutral/disagree and agree) and is available in S3 Table. Results were largely the same with the addition that those with difficulties in iADLs were less likely to report difficulties participating in the arts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Neighbourhood safety is based on a single self-reported question.

“For example, neighbourhood safety is based on a single self- reported question”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a broad literature showing that engagement with the arts has a range of physical, cognitive, and mental health promoting effects.

“There is a broad literature showing that engagement with the arts has a range of physical, cognitive, and mental health promoting effects [1].”

• cites [1] Fancourt D, Finn S, World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Health Evidence Network. What is the evidence on the role of the arts in improving health and well-being?: a scoping review [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Nov 25]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553773/Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

We had to collapse some outcomes and predictors due to the small samples.

“Similarly, we had to collapse some outcomes and predictors due to the small samples”

May combine two claims.

The sample of individuals responding to the 2014 Culture and Arts module was small with respect to the total cohort sample, and therefore we were unable to stratify by more than two age groups.

“The sample of individuals responding to the 2014 Culture and Arts module was small with respect to the total cohort sample, and therefore we were unable to stratify by more than two age groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These analyses were cross-sectional and therefore we cannot make causal inferences from the findings.

“Finally, these analyses were cross-sectional and therefore we cannot make causal inferences from the findings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Of the total number of participants recruited by the start of wave 12 in 2014 (N = 35,364), 21,525 were known or presumed alive, and 18,747 participants (87.1% response rate) took part in the core survey.

“First, of the total number of participants recruited by the start of wave 12 in the year 2014 (N = 35,364), there were 21,525 known or presumed alive (via correspondence or family notification). Of these, there were 18,747 participants (87.1% response rate) [28] who took part in the core survey”

• cites [28] R McCammon, 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

There appear to be socioeconomic inequalities in engagement that may increase in older ages.

“Further, there appear to be socioeconomic inequalities in engagement that may increase in older ages”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Health and Retirement Study replenishes the sample every six years with younger cohorts to ensure the data continues to provide a fully representative sample of individuals over the age of 50 in the United States.

“HRS replenishes the sample every six years with younger cohorts to ensure the data continues to provide a fully representative sample of individuals over the age of 50 in the United States; more details on study design are described elsewhere [27].”

• cites [27] A Sonnega, 2014, Cohort Profile: the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), Int J Epidemiol sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Health and Retirement Study is a nationally representative study in the United States of over 37,000 individuals over the age of 50.

“Participants were drawn from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a nationally representative study in the United States of over 37,000 individuals over the age of 50 [27].”

• cites [27] A Sonnega, 2014, Cohort Profile: the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), Int J Epidemiol sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The interest in the arts index score had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.95.

“Appreciation for the arts was measured with: (18) interest in the arts index score (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.95)”

May combine two claims.

Our results suggest that socioeconomic inequalities in arts and cultural engagement may increase in older ages, with arts activities overall remaining more accessible compared to cultural engagement.

“Our results suggest that socioeconomic inequalities in arts and cultural engagement may increase in older ages, with arts activities overall remaining more accessible (compared to cultural engagement).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The cross-sectional age differences observed reflect age-related change (aging) rather than cohort or period effects.