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Cited by 8Parental Involvement in EducationSchool Choice and PerformanceFamily Dynamics and Relationships

Do rising returns to education justify “helicopter” parenting?

Open access
Northwestern University, Doepke, Matthias, Zilibotti, Fabrizio, Yale University·2021·IZA World of Labor
DOI 10.15185/izawol.487
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Abstract

Do rising returns to education justify "helicopter" parenting?Increased stakes in educational achievement explain why today's anxious parents engage in intensive parenting styles

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Rising inequality and higher returns to education have raised the stakes of parenting, leading parents to adopt more intensive, achievement-oriented styles as a rational response. The paper argues this can improve children’s educational outcomes but also creates tradeoffs: less independence and creativity, mental-health concerns, and a widening parenting gap that may reduce social mobility.

Key findings

  • Parenting time has risen substantially in many countries, often by 50% or more since the 1970s; in the US this amounts to an additional 1 hour 45 minutes of parent-child interaction per day, and education-oriented activities such as helping with homework rose by a factor of 3.5 since 1976.
  • Economic inequality and returns to education rose alongside intensive parenting: in the US, the top-to-bottom 10% income ratio more than doubled from 9.1 to 18.9 between 1974 and 2014, and college graduates’ wages increased by about 40% relative to high school graduates.
  • Intensive parenting is more common in high-inequality countries: only 11% of parents in Sweden emphasize hard work, compared with 45% in the UK and almost two-thirds in the US; close to 60% of Swedish parents list imagination as important, versus less than a third in the US.
  • Intensive parenting is associated with better child outcomes: PISA data show children of intensive parents perform significantly better across subjects; in NLSY97, an authoritative mother is 40% more likely to see her child earn a PhD or professional degree than a permissive mother; in the UK, authoritative parenting is associated with an increase in upward social mobility of close to 30%.

Methods

  • The article is a synthesis/policy review of the economics of parenting, not a new experimental or original empirical study.
  • It draws on time-use data, the World Values Survey, OECD PISA, NLSY97, and the British Household Panel Survey, among other cited sources.
  • The main analysis combines descriptive cross-country and over-time trends with cited empirical models that include country and time fixed effects and controls for parental characteristics such as income and education.

Limitations

  • Paper-stated: research on the economics of parenting is still early-stage; much empirical work relies on observational data because experimentally varying parenting is usually infeasible.
  • Paper-stated: data availability is limited, parenting-style measures are crude and inconsistently measured across datasets, child outcomes are often limited to easily measured variables such as test scores and grades, and lifetime outcomes are realized over very long periods.
  • Evident from the text: as a synthesis, the article does not provide new causal estimates, and many cited relationships—especially cross-country correlations between inequality and parenting—remain associational rather than definitively causal.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.15185/izawol.487

Cites

17 of 17 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 46 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation
    § ELEVATOR PITCH

    Today's parents supervise their children more closely than in the past.

    “Today's parents supervise their children more closely, spend more time interacting with them, help much more with homework, and place more emphasis on educational achievement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingcitation
    § ELEVATOR PITCH

    Today's parents place more emphasis on educational achievement than in the past.

    “Today's parents supervise their children more closely, spend more time interacting with them, help much more with homework, and place more emphasis on educational achievement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingnone given
    § MOTIVATION

    The number of children per family has declined during the same period.

    “The number of children per family has declined during the same period, implying an even larger rise in interactions with each child.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI | Do rising returns to education justify "helicopter" parenting?

    In the US, the wages of college graduates increased by about 40% relative to those of high school graduates during the same decades.

    “In the US, the wages of college graduates increased by about 40% relative to those of high school graduates during the same decades [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingcitation
    § MOTIVATION

    In the US, parents with a college education have increased their time investments in parenting much more than less-educated parents.

    “In the US, parents with a college education have increased their time investments in parenting much more than less-educated parents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 33
  • May combine two claims. 21

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning
    § MOTIVATION

    While parenting has become more intensive, it has also become more unequal.

    “While parenting has become more intensive, it has also become more unequal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § KEY FINDINGS Cons

    The rise in intensive parenting has resulted in a parenting gap, meaning that parenting investments are unequal across the socioeconomic scale.

    “The rise in intensive parenting has resulted in a parenting gap, meaning that parenting investments are unequal across the socioeconomic scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Pros

    The rise in intensive parenting coincided with a period of rising inequality and rising returns to education.

    “The rise in intensive parenting coincided with a period of rising inequality and rising returns to education.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § Pros

    Intensive parenting styles are associated with higher educational achievement for children and upward social mobility.

    “Intensive parenting styles are associated with higher educational achievement for children and upward social mobility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    In low-inequality Sweden, only 11% of parents emphasize hard work, compared to 45% in the UK and almost two-thirds in the highly unequal US.

    “In low-inequality Sweden, only 11% of parents emphasize hard work, compared to 45% in the UK and almost two-thirds in the highly unequal US.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    In Spain and Turkey, inequality has decreased over the last few decades, and parents have become more relaxed.

    “In Spain and Turkey, in contrast, inequality has decreased over the last few decades, and parents have become more relaxed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    These regressions confirm a strong association between inequality and intensive parenting, with a similarly strong relationship as in the simple cross section of countries.

    “These regressions confirm a strong association between inequality and intensive parenting, with a similarly strong relationship as in the simple cross section of countries [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Pros

    Intensive parenting is particularly widespread in countries with high inequality, whereas in low-inequality countries permissive parenting is still common.

    “Intensive parenting is particularly widespread in countries with high inequality, whereas in lowinequality countries permissive parenting is still common.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § Parallel trends in parenting and inequality

    Most European countries have lower levels of inequality, but they also saw inequality rise during the same period.

    “While most European countries have lower levels, they also saw inequality rise during the same period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Tradeoffs in parenting

    In low-inequality Sweden, close to 60% of parents list imagination among the most important values for raising children; less than a third of parents in the high-inequality US do the same.

    “In low-inequality Sweden, close to 60% of parents list imagination among the most important values for raising children; less than a third of parents in the high-inequality US do the same [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 1 AUTHORS' MAIN MESSAGE

    Parents have responded to rising stakes in parenting by working hard to prepare their children for an increasingly competitive world.

    “Rising inequality and high returns to education have raised the stakes in parenting, and parents have responded by working hard to prepare their children for an increasingly competitive world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 1 AUTHORS' MAIN MESSAGE

    Intensive parenting involves important tradeoffs.

    “While more intensive parenting can be understood as a rational choice, there are important tradeoffs involved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1 AUTHORS' MAIN MESSAGE

    Today's closely supervised children have less room to develop independence and creativity.

    “Today's closely supervised children have less room to develop independence and creativity; the number of adolescents suffering from anxiety and depression has risen; and the rising parenting gap can hinder social mobility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1 AUTHORS' MAIN MESSAGE

    The rising parenting gap can hinder social mobility.

    “Today's closely supervised children have less room to develop independence and creativity; the number of adolescents suffering from anxiety and depression has risen; and the rising parenting gap can hinder social mobility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1 AUTHORS' MAIN MESSAGE

    Rising inequality and high returns to education have raised the stakes in parenting.

    “Rising inequality and high returns to education have raised the stakes in parenting, and parents have responded by working hard to prepare their children for an increasingly competitive world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 1 AUTHORS' MAIN MESSAGE

    More intensive parenting can be understood as a rational choice.

    “While more intensive parenting can be understood as a rational choice, there are important tradeoffs involved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § KEY FINDINGS Cons

    Parents who push their children hard toward achievement are less able to instill other values such as independence or creativity.

    “Parents who push their children hard toward achievement are less able to instill other values such as independence or creativity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § ELEVATOR PITCH

    The increase in parenting investments by highly educated high-income parents has led to a growing parenting gap in society.

    “More intensive parenting has also led to more unequal parenting: highly educated parents with high incomes have increased their parenting investments the most, leading to a growing”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § The impact of intensive parenting on child achievement

    Rising inequality and rising returns to education provide today's parents cause to worry about their children's educational accomplishments.

    “Rising inequality and rising returns to education provide today's parents cause to worry about their children's educational accomplishments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § KEY FINDINGS Cons

    At the societal level, intensive parenting and a rising parenting gap can contribute to persistent inequality and low social mobility.

    “At the societal level, intensive parenting and a rising parenting gap can contribute to persistent inequality and low social mobility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § ELEVATOR PITCH

    These trends can contribute to declining social mobility and further exacerbate rising inequality.

    “These trends can contribute to declining social mobility and further exacerbate rising inequality, which raises the question of how policymakers should respond.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § The impact of intensive parenting on child achievement

    Intensive parenting comprises a variety of strategies and activities, which may have different impacts that are hard to disentangle.

    “What is more, intensive parenting comprises a variety of strategies and activities, which may have different impacts that are hard to disentangle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Inequality and parenting across countries

    Parallel trends in parenting investments and inequality do not prove that there is a causal link between the two.

    “Of course, parallel trends in parenting investments and inequality do not prove that there is a causal link between the two.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Broader support for early childhood education and more investments in public education would require higher levels of taxation.

    “broader support for early childhood education and more investments in public education would require higher levels of taxation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Public resources are limited.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Investments in vocational training and apprenticeship programs and support for public colleges and universities would help provide a wider range of options for adolescents to continue their education and would reduce competition for the limited number of slots at the few elite universities.

    “Investments in vocational training and apprenticeship programs and support for public colleges and universities would help provide a wider range of options for adolescents to continue their education and would reduce competition for the limited number of slots at the few elite universities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Some proposed policies such as expanded investments in early-childhood education have been shown to have economic returns, implying that they will largely pay for themselves.

    “Still, while there is no free lunch, some of the proposed policies such as expanded investments in early-childhood education have been shown to have economic returns, implying that they will largely pay for themselves.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    More equal support for public schools in different socio-economic neighborhoods would push back against residential segregation by income.

    “More equal support for public schools in different socio-economic neighborhoods would push back against residential segregation by income.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    Policymakers can have a large impact.

    “But the evidence does suggest that policymakers can have a large impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    Just preaching to parents to behave differently is unlikely to be effective.

    “Just preaching to parents to behave differently is unlikely to be effective-after all, parents' behavior can be understood as a perfectly rational response to a changed world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    The policies that are likely to reduce the desire for high-pressure parenting are those that create a less competition-based environment for children.

    “The policies that are likely to reduce the desire for high-pressure parenting are those that create a less competition-based environment for children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Wide availability of and support for high-quality daycare and preschool would contribute to creating more equal starting conditions for children and reduce the parenting gap in the crucial early years.

    “Wide availability of and support for high-quality daycare and preschool would contribute to creating more equal starting conditions for children and reduce the parenting gap in the crucial early years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    More progressive taxation would reduce incentives for accumulating human capital, thus potentially increasing educational inequality while lowering after-tax inequality.

    “More progressive taxation would reduce incentives for accumulating human capital, thus potentially increasing educational inequality while lowering after-tax inequality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: All of these policy choices involve tradeoffs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    If parenting turns into an arms race with parents working harder and harder to make sure their family stays ahead of others, everyone may end up worse off.

    “If parenting turns into an arms race with parents working harder and harder to make sure their family stays ahead of others, everyone may end up worse off.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Changes to the tax and transfer system that address income inequality outright could also contribute.

    “Changes to the tax and transfer system that address income inequality outright could also contribute.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI | Do rising returns to education justify "helicopter" parenting?

    Inequality leads to competitive parenting, which further exacerbates inequality for the next generation.

    “It all adds up to a vicious cycle where inequality leads to competitive parenting, which further exacerbates inequality for the next generation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § The rising parenting gap and the future of social mobility

    The growing parenting gap suggests that inequality will continue to rise and social mobility will decline compared to the situation today.

    “The growing parenting gap suggests that inequality will continue to rise and social mobility will decline compared to the situation today.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Parental education has long been one of the best predictors of children's success in school.
    • Rests on an assumption: Children of wealthy parents already have many advantages, such as access to high-quality preschools, private K-12 schools, tutoring, and extracurricular activities.
    • Rests on an assumption: Some aspects of intensive parenting, such as tutoring and extra-curricular classes and activities, require money in addition to parents' time.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    With the right institutions and policies in place, parents face a different set of incentives, and the parenting culture will adjust.

    “With the right institutions and policies in place, parents face a different set of incentives, and the parenting culture will adjust.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Parents respond to the incentives they receive from the economic environment they face.
    • Rests on an assumption: Policies like the ones described here are already in place in many countries that are currently characterized by more permissive parenting styles and more relaxed childhoods.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Curricula that place more emphasis on creativity, social skills, and teamwork rather than individual skills and competition would lower competitive pressures in school while building other valuable skills.

    “Curricula that place more emphasis on creativity, social skills, and teamwork rather than individual skills and competition would lower competitive pressures in school while building other valuable skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    Intensive parenting leads to rising parenting gaps, with potentially detrimental effects for the future evolution of economic inequality and social mobility.

    “Most importantly, intensive parenting also leads to rising parenting gaps, with potentially detrimental effects for the future evolution of economic inequality and social mobility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Tradeoffs in parenting

    A loss of opportunity for developing independence and creativity could ultimately also have economic consequences for children.

    “a loss of opportunity for developing independence and creativity could ultimately also have economic consequences for children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The highest returns of all usually go to entrepreneurs, and creativity and independence are considered essential skills for starting and succeeding with one's own business.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    If policymakers change this environment, parenting will respond.

    “If policymakers change this environment, parenting will respond.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Parents respond to the incentives they receive from the economic environment they face.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    What makes sense for the individual may have negative repercussions for society at large.

    “Still, what makes sense for the individual may have negative repercussions for society at large.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § MATTHIAS DOEPKE AND FABRIZIO ZILIBOTTI |

    Reduced competitive pressure in education may also discourage the creation of top-end human capital that supports innovation and economic growth.

    “Reduced competitive pressure in education may also discourage the creation of top-end human capital that supports innovation and economic growth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: All of these policy choices involve tradeoffs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § SUMMARY AND POLICY ADVICE

    Parents' behavior can be understood as a perfectly rational response to a changed world.

    “parents' behavior can be understood as a perfectly rational response to a changed world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
44 of 44

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parents want their children to be happy and to do well in life.

    “Ultimately, parents want their children to be happy and to do well in life, and what it takes to achieve that is in part shaped by economic conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    What it takes for children to be happy and to do well is in part shaped by economic conditions.

    “Ultimately, parents want their children to be happy and to do well in life, and what it takes to achieve that is in part shaped by economic conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The number of adolescents suffering from anxiety and depression has risen.

    “Today's closely supervised children have less room to develop independence and creativity; the number of adolescents suffering from anxiety and depression has risen; and the rising parenting gap can hinder social mobility.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The World Values Survey items on hard work versus imagination and independence validly measure intensive versus permissive parenting.

    “Among the possible values are”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Returns to college education are a particularly important indicator of inequality for parents worried about their child's school achievement.

    “For parents worried about their child's school achievement, returns to college education are a particularly important indicator of inequality.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In a society characterized by stark economic inequality and high returns to education, parents may perceive that their children's future depends crucially on educational achievement and on outcompeting others, and such belief is likely to result in intensive, achievement-oriented parenting.

    “In a society characterized by stark economic inequality and high returns to education, parents may perceive that their children's future depends crucially on educational achievement and on outcompeting others; such belief is likely to result in intensive, achievement-oriented parenting.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    If inequality is low and there are many paths to a secure and happy existence, parents can afford to relax more, resulting in more permissive parenting.

    “In contrast, if inequality is low and if there are many paths to a secure and happy existence, parents can afford to relax more, resulting in more permissive parenting.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Today, children's future opportunities depend much more on their educational accomplishments than for earlier generations.

    “Today, children's future opportunities depend much more on their educational accomplishments than for earlier generations”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The highest returns of all usually go to entrepreneurs, and creativity and independence are considered essential skills for starting and succeeding with one's own business.

    “The highest returns of all usually go to entrepreneurs; creativity and independence are considered essential skills for starting and succeeding with one's own business.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parental education has long been one of the best predictors of children's success in school.

    “Parental education has long been one of the best predictors of children's success in school.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Children of wealthy parents already have many advantages, such as access to high-quality preschools, private K-12 schools, tutoring, and extracurricular activities.

    “children of wealthy parents already have many advantages, such as access to high-quality preschools, private K-12 schools, tutoring, and extracurricular activities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Some aspects of intensive parenting, such as tutoring and extra-curricular classes and activities, require money in addition to parents' time.

    “Some aspects of intensive parenting, such as tutoring and extra-curricular classes and activities, also require money in addition to parents' time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Spending time and money on intensive parenting strategies leaves less time and money for everything else.

    “Spending time and money on intensive parenting strategies leaves less time and money for everything else.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parents respond to the incentives they receive from the economic environment they face.

    “Parents respond to the incentives they receive from the economic environment they face.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Public resources are limited.

    “Public resources are limited”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    All of these policy choices involve tradeoffs.

    “To be sure, all of these policy choices involve tradeoffs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Policies like the ones described here are already in place in many countries that are currently characterized by more permissive parenting styles and more relaxed childhoods.

    “Policies like the ones described here are already in place in many countries that are currently characterized by more permissive parenting styles and more relaxed childhoods.”
17 of 17

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Reference [1] identifies two different works

    Minor

    The text labels the 2019 book as reference [1], but entry 1 in the reference list is a different work published in 2020.

  • Reference [5] predates the period it is cited to document

    Minor

    The cited claim reports a change through 2015, but reference [5] was published in 1967 and therefore cannot report that change.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Socialization, Personality, and Social Development. New York: Wiley, 1983.

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Northwestern University, Doepke, M., Zilibotti, F., & Yale University
Affiliations
  • Northwestern University (US)
  • Yale University (US)
ORCID
Venue
IZA World of Labor
Publisher
wol.iza.org
Published
2021
ISSN
2054-9571 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.15185/izawol.487
OpenAlex
W3212565282
Semantic Scholar
3bda4ce5eb5d491d194cbe7a2c4bc461e8079dff
Cited by
8
References
16
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1
FWCI
2.19
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • IZA World of Labor (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • Econstor (Econstor) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Parental Involvement in Education
  • Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Keywords
returns to education, helicopter parenting, intensive parenting, parental anxiety, academic performance, parental investment

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-20.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-20.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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