Effects of walking in water on gut hormone concentrations and appetite: Comparison with walking on land
Open accessAbstract
The effects of water exercise on gut hormone concentrations and appetite currently remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of treadmill walking in water on gut hormone concentrations and appetite. Thirteen men (mean ± s.d. age: 21.6 ± 2.2 years, body mass index: 22.7 ± 2.8 kg/m 2 , peak oxygen uptake (VO 2peak ): 49.8 ± 7.8 mL/kg per min) participated in the walking in water and on land challenge. During the study period, ratings of subjective feelings of hunger, fullness, satiety and motivation to eat were reported on a 100-mm visual analog scale. A test meal was presented after walking, and energy intake (EI) was calculated. Blood samples were obtained during both trials to measure glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY) and acylated ghrelin (AG) concentrations. Hunger scores (How hungry do you feel?) were significantly lower during the water trial than during the land trial ( P < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in EI between water and land trials. GLP-1 concentrations were significantly higher in the water trial than in the land trial ( P < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in PYY concentrations between water and land trials. AG concentrations were significantly lower in the water trial than in the land trial ( P < 0.01). In conclusion, changes in gut hormone concentrations during walking in water contribute to the exercise-induced suppression of appetite and provide novel information on the influence of walking in water on the acute regulation of appetite.
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There was no main effect of trial on hunger ratings in four of the studies comparing water-based versus land-based exercise.
“but there was no main effect of trial reported in four of the studies (Lambert et al., 1999;Metz et al., 2021aMetz et al., , 2021b;;Ueda et al., 2018).”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al., 2018
The Results (Study 1: Effects of walking in water; page unavailable) report that hunger scores were significantly lower during walking in water than on land (P < 0.05). Although the Methods describe a two-way analysis of variance, the paper does not report the hunger finding as a nonsignificant trial effect; its stated comparison is contrary to the claim as applied to Ueda et al. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOnly one included study, Ueda et al. (2018), measured GLP-1 and PYY concentration when examining the effects of aqua-walking versus land-walking in twenty habitually active healthy males.
“Only one included study (Ueda et al., 2018) measured GLP-1 and PYY concentration when examining the effects of aqua-walking versus land-walking in twenty habitually active healthy males.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al., 2018
The Results (Study 1) report GLP-1 and PYY concentrations for walking in water versus on land. Materials and methods (Design; page not available) describes the participants as habitually active, but specifies that 13 men took part in the walking comparison, not 20; eight different men took part in a separate water-immersion study. The source cannot establish how many studies the citing review included. (LLM, conf=0.92)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOf all the included studies, Ueda et al. (2018) is the only water-based exercise study where participants undertook the exercise in a fasted state.
“Of all the included studies this is the only water-based exercise study where participants undertook the exercise in a fasted state.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al., 2018
Materials and methods (Study 1: Effects of walking in water; page unavailable) confirms that participants walked in water and received a test meal after exercise. The passages retrieved do not explicitly establish that they exercised while fasted; the fasting blood sample is described for Study 2, which involved water immersion at rest. This paper also cannot establish that it was the only fasted water-exercise study among the citing paper’s included studies. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNo between-trial differences were identified in total PYY concentrations between water- and land-based exercise.
“Circulating concentrations of AG and GLP-1 were lower and higher, respectively, during water-compared to land-based exercise, but no between-trial differences were identified in total PYY concentrations.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al. (2018)
Circulating concentrations of GLP-1 were higher during water- compared to land-based exercise.
“Circulating concentrations of AG and GLP-1 were lower and higher, respectively, during water-compared to land-based exercise, but no between-trial differences were identified in total PYY concentrations.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al. (2018)
Circulating concentrations of AG were lower during water- compared to land-based exercise.
“Circulating concentrations of AG and GLP-1 were lower and higher, respectively, during water-compared to land-based exercise, but no between-trial differences were identified in total PYY concentrations.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al. (2018)
Five studies measured ratings of hunger in response to water-based versus land-based exercise.
“Five studies measured ratings of hunger in response to water-based versus land-based exercise (Lambert et al., 1999;Metz et al., 2021aMetz et al., , 2021b;;Thackray et al., 2020;Ueda et al., 2018)”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al., 2018
There was no difference in PYY between the aqua walking and land walking trials in Ueda et al. (2018).
“GLP-1 was significantly higher during the aqua walking trial compared to the land walking trial but there was no difference in PYY.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al., 2018
GLP-1 was significantly higher during the aqua walking trial compared to the land walking trial in Ueda et al. (2018).
“GLP-1 was significantly higher during the aqua walking trial compared to the land walking trial but there was no difference in PYY.”
From Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as Ueda et al., 2018
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Cites
Exercise-induced suppression of acylated ghrelin in humans
Broom, D. R., Stensel, D. J., Bishop, N. C., Burns, S. F., & Miyashita, M. (2007) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2006 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Acute Exercise and Hormones Related to Appetite Regulation: A Meta-Analysis
Schubert, M. M., Sabapathy, S., Leveritt, M., & Desbrow, B. (2014) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0120-3 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Acute exercise and subsequent energy intake. A meta-analysis
Schubert, M. M., Desbrow, B., Sabapathy, S., & Leveritt, M. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2012.12.010 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
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Sorted by citations
Grigg, M. J., Thake, C. D., Allgrove, J. E., King, J. A., Thackray, A. E., Stensel, D. J., Owen, A., & Broom, D. R. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Metz, L., Isacco, L., Fearnbach, N., Pereira, B., Thivel, D., & Duclos, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041051 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Grigg, M. J., Thake, C. D., Allgrove, J. E., & Broom, D. R. (2025) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114914 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ueda, S.-Y., Nakahara, H., Kawai, E., Usui, T., Tsuji, S., & Miyamoto, T.
- Affiliations
- Morinomiya University of Medical Sciences (JP)
- Osaka City University (JP)
- Osaka Seikei University (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Ueda, Shin-ya
- Venue
- Endocrine Connections
- Publisher
- Bioscientifica
- Published
- 2018-01
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 97-106
- ISSN
- 2049-3614 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5754512
- OpenAlex
- W2770403773
- Cited by
- 5
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 0.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Endocrine Connections (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (16K13023, 17K13200, 15H03101)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Keywords
- aquatic exercise, gastrointestinal hormones, appetite regulation, glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY, acylated ghrelin, hunger, energy intake, satiety
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