In Search of the Origin of the Enumeration of Hell-kings in an Early Medieval Chinese Buddhist Scripture: Why did King Bimbis?ra become Yama after his Disastrous Defeat in Battle in the Wen diyu jing ???? (‘S?tra on Questions on Hells’)?

It may state two separate claims as one.

The earliest quotations from the Wen diyu jing are found in the sixth-century Jinglü yixiang, while the contemporary Chusanzang jiji does not mention the sūtra.

“While the earliest quotations from it are found in the sixth century Jinglü yixiang, a contemporary catalogue, the Chusanzang jiji (出三藏記集; T 55. 2145), does not mention the sūtra.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The thirty hells and their associated kings in the Jingdu sanmei jing are listed as destinations for evil-doers whose reports record insufficient merit.

“The thirty hells, with their associated kings, are listed as destinations for evil-doers of various kinds whose reports record insufficient merit.”

• cites Jingdu sanmei jing (淨度三昧經). X 1. 15: 370a12-371c 2.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

A better edition of the eighteen-hell enumeration appears in the Cibei daochang chanfa.

“A better edition of this appears in the Cibe daochang canfa.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The complete Wen diyu jing has been missing since the early medieval period.

“The complete 'Sūtra on Questions on Hells' has been missing since the early medieval period.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

In the eighteen-hell scheme, each hell is governed by an individual king, closely associated with the story of King Bimbisāra who became Yama.

“In the scheme of eighteen hells, however, each hell is governed by an individual king, and they are closely associated with the story of King Bimbisāra who became Yama.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

In the sixty-four-hell scheme, evil-doers who complete their punishment may be allowed to leave hell and enter an intermediate state, reborn according to karma.

“Evil-doers who complete their entire course of punishment in all the hells will come before them and, depending on the karma from their past bad actions, may be allowed to leave their bodies in hell and enter an intermediate state, being reborn according to their karma.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Bimbisāra's eighteen ministers followed him to hell with his defeated army to help govern evil-doers there.

“His eighteen ministers followed him to hell, along with his entire defeated army, in order to help him govern the evil-doers there.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

In the sixty-four-hell scheme, five kings who dedicated themselves to Buddhism and took the Mahāyāna vow are said to be present.

“Five kings who dedicated themselves to Buddhism and took the Mahāyāna vow to save other sentient beings are said to be there.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

In the sixty-four-hell scheme, each hell does not have its own hell-king.

“In the scheme of sixty-four hells, each hell does not have its own hell-king.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The ministers became hell-kings supervising tortures in eighteen hells, and the soldiers became ghostly wardens of the underworld.

“The ministers all became hell-kings, supervising different tortures in eighteen different hells, while the soldiers turned into ghostly wardens of the underworld.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The story says that after his defeat by King Weituoshi, Bimbisāra angrily vowed to become Lord of Hell and presumably died.

“The story says that after his disastrous defeat in battle against a king called Weituoshi (維陀始王), 6 Bimbisāra angrily vowed to become the Lord of Hell (and then presumably died).”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The story of King Bimbisāra is narrated at the start of the forty-ninth juan of the Jinglü yixiang, entitled 'The reason why King Yama and his subjects became the bureaucrats of Hell in the past'.

“The story of King Bimbisāra is narrated at the start of the forty-ninth juan of the Jinglü yixiang, the upper section of Hells, and is entitled 'The reason why King Yama and his subjects became the bureaucrats of Hell in the past' (閻羅王等為獄 司往緣).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Jingdu sanmei jing and the Wen diyu jing both contain enumerations of hell-kings, but these enumerations occur in different contexts.

“Though both these scriptures contain enumerations of hell-kings, the enumerations occur in different contexts.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Although the complete Wen diyu jing is lost, this section was transmitted through later Buddhist encyclopaedias and the Lianghuang baocan.

“Although the complete Wen diyu jing is lost, this section has been passed down through later Buddhist encyclopaedias and the pivotal medieval Buddhist purgatory scripture, the Lianghuang baocan (梁皇寶懺; 'Jewelled Repentance Dharma of Emperor Liang', T 45. 1909).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Jingdu sanmei jing emphasizes observing the 'Days of the Eight Kings', a Buddhist appropriation of a Daoist idea of eight seasonal days when otherworld bureaucratic deities report people's deeds to divine authority.

“The sūtra highlights the importance of observing the 'Days of the Eight Kings', a Buddhist appropriation of the Daoist idea of eight seasonal days when otherworld bureaucratic deities report people's deeds to the divine authority.”

• cites Xiao Dengfu (1996, 58-68)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ziegler (2001)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Chen Shih-Chung (2013, 55-78)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Another passage in the Jinglü yixiang states that the Wen diyu jing says hells are on the earth.

“Another passage in the Jinglü yixiang, which is a comment within a list of enumeration of hells from a different text, states that 'the Sūtra on Questions on Hells says: Hells are on the earth'.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Another unusual line in the Wen diyu jing is that King Bimbisāra as Yama is subject to the Northern Celestial King Vaiśravaṇa.

“Another unusual line in the story in the Wen diyu jing is that King Bimbisāra as Yama, Lord of Hell, is subject to the Northern Celestial King Vaiśravaṇa.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

According to Radich, episodes of Devadatta's plot to persuade Ajātaśatru to kill his father and Ajātaśatru's repentance before the Buddha already appeared in the Pāli canon.

“According to his research, the episodes of Devadatta's plot to persuade Ajātaśatru to kill his father and Ajātaśatru's repentance before the Buddha for his patricide have both already appeared as early as in the Pāli canon (Vin II 190, D I 85).”

• cites Radich 2011, 6-32Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

According to many Indian and Chinese Buddhist sources, King Bimbisāra was imprisoned and tortured or starved to death by his son Ajātaśatru.

“According to many Indian and Chinese Buddhist sources, King Bimbisāra was imprisoned and tortured or starved to death by his son, King Ajātaśatru.”

• cites Radich 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Wen diyu jing contains a concept of an intermediate state between death and the next life similar to the one in the ninth/tenth century Scripture on the Ten Kings.

“Ziegler has further indicated that the Wen diyu jing also features a similar concept of the intermediate state between death and the next life -when evil-doers enter the city of Hell and wait for their final sentence of punishment -to the one included in the ninth/tenth century 'Scripture on the Ten Kings'.”

• cites Ziegler (2001, 157-158)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Later Tang cataloguers thought the two texts were the same, an assumption accepted by many modern scholars.

“The two texts were thought to be the same by later Tang dynasty cataloguers, an assumption accepted by many modern scholars (Ziegler 2001, 153-154).”

• cites Ziegler 2001, 153-154Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The list of hell-kings is arranged disorderly and anachronistically and is not based on historical fact.

“The list of these kings is arranged disorderly and anachronistically and is not based on any historical fact.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Ziegler notices that this statement of hells on earth is dissimilar to descriptions in Indian-translated Buddhist scriptures, which are usually more fictional.

“Ziegler notices that this simple statement of location of hells on the earth is quite dissimilar to those descriptions in the Buddhist scriptures translated from India, which are usually more 'fictional.'”

• cites Ziegler 2001, 154Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

The Jingdu sanmei jing and the Wen diyu jing contain possibly the earliest precedents for enumerations of multiple hell-kings parallel to the Ten Kings.

“Scholars such as Xiao Dengfu, Stephen Teiser and Harumi Ziegler have noticed possibly the earliest precedent for enumerations of multiple hell-kings, parallel to that of the Ten Kings, in two early medieval indigenous Chinese Buddhist scriptures, the Jingdu sanmei jing (淨度三昧經; 'Samādhi-Sūtra of Liberation through Purification'), and the Wen diyu jing (問地獄經; 'Sūtra on Questions on Hells').”

• cites Xiao Dengfu (1996, 43-45, 68-71)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Teiser (1994, 82-83)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ziegler (2001, 136-158)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The extraordinary story in the Wen diyu jing was probably consciously developed by an author from sources related to early medieval Chinese popular belief in sacrificial cults of defeated armies and dead generals, and from a passage in the Shenisha jing about the fate of the Buddha's followers in the afterlife.

“I seek to demonstrate that this extraordinary story was probably consciously developed by an author from sources related to the early medieval Chinese popular belief in sacrificial cults of 'defeated armies and dead generals', and also to a passage in the Shenisha jing (闍尼沙經; Janavasabha Sutta) about the fate of the followers of the Buddha in the afterlife.”

• Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged

  “My examination on these questions tentatively suggests that the story was probably consciously formulated by an author familiar with two sources: (i) the story of the Buddha's concern about the fate of his followers in the Shenisha jing (闍尼沙經; Janavasabha Sutta) in the Chang ahan jing (長阿含經), and (ii) the popular Chinese belief in sacrificial cults of 'defeated armies and dead generals'.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

In the Chinese version, Shenisha tells the Buddha he has been reborn as crown prince of Vaiśravaṇa and attained Stream-enterer through dedication to Buddhist Dharma.

“In the Chinese version, Shenisha (Janavasabha) tells the Buddha that he has been reborn as the crown prince of Vaiśravaṇa (Vessavaṇa) and attained the state of Stream-enterer through his dedication to the Buddhist Dharma during his lifetime.”

• cites Chang ahan jing (長阿含經).T 1.1.34c3-35a10.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Ziegler points out that the Gaoseng zhuan contains a similar title, the Wen diyu shi jing, translated by Kang Ju (187-199 CE).

“Ziegler points out that, in the Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳; 'The Biographies of Eminent Monks'), there is a similar title, the Wen diyu shi jing (問地獄事經 'Sūtra on Questions on Matters of Hells'), translated by Kang Ju (康巨; 187-199 CE).”

• cites Ziegler 2001, 153-154Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

By threatening to kill these ghostly kings, Daoist priests could deter them from harming humans.

“By threatening to kill these ghostly kings, Daoist priests would be able to deter them from harming humans.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Although there seems to be no evidence of a direct connection between Yama and Vaiśravaṇa in early Buddhist sources, Bimbisāra is associated with Vaiśravaṇa in the Janavasabha Sutta and its Chinese version.

“Although there seems to be no evidence of a direct connection between Yama and King Vaiśravaṇa in early Buddhist sources, Bimbisāra is associated with Vaiśravaṇa in the Dīgha-nikāya Janavasabha Sutta (D.18), the Shenisha jing (闍尼沙經) in the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama (T 1. 1: 34b4-36b23).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Cults also attached to Xiang Yu and Su Jun, among others.

“Cults also attached to the famous King Chu, Xiang Yu (項羽) of the third century BCE (who was defeated by Liu Bang (劉邦), the founder of the Han dynasty, and then committed suicide; Li Bo 2008, 214-217), and to the notorious rebellious general of the fourth century CE, Su Jun (蘇峻, who was beheaded after being captured by the government army), 17 amongst others.”

• cites Li Bo 2008, 214-217Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Li Hongyan (2005, 112-120)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Quan Jiayu (2010, 39-44)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Li Bo points out that an inscription verifies the account of Li Anmin abolishing the ox sacrifice and mentions that the deity converted to promote Buddhism.

“Li Bo, in his study on 'The Stele inscription on the Divine Temple of the King Chu (Xiang Yu)' (吳興楚王神廟碑) by the Emperor Jianwen of the Liang dynasty (梁簡文帝; r. 549-551CE), points out that the content of this inscription verifies the account of the abolishment of the sacrifice of an ox to Xiang Yu by Li Anmin and that it even further mentions that the deity had converted to promote Buddhism (Li Bo 2”

• cites Li Bo 2008, 216Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

This attempt could also have crystallized in the story of King Bimbisāra in the Wen diyu jing.

“They imply that this attempt could also have been crystallized in items such as the story of King Bimbisāra in the 'Sūtra on Questions on Hells'.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Jiang Ziwen, a third-century general who died in battle, was believed to have become the 'God of Earth'.

“For example, Jiang Ziwen (蔣子文), a general of the third century who died in battle, was believed to have become the 'God of Earth'.”

• cites Lin Fu-shih (1998, 357-375)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Chen Shengyu (2007, 165-169)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

When Li Anmin became governor of Wuxing, he abolished the ox sacrifice to Xiang Yu by performing the Buddhist Eight-Precept Abstinence in the main official hall.

“When Li Anmin became the governor of Wuxing, as a devout Buddhist he abolished the sacrifice of an ox to Xiang Yu by performing the Buddhist Eight-Precept Abstinence instead in the main official hall (Nanqi shu.27: 508).”

• cites Nanqi shu.27: 508Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

The story reads as if Bimbisāra, his eighteen ministers, and a million soldiers all died in battle and were reborn as Yama, hell-kings, and wardens in the other world.

“The story reads as if King Bimbisāra, his eighteen ministers, and a million soldiers had all died in the battle and then been reborn as Yama, hell-kings, and wardens in the other world.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Historical and inscriptional sources provide clues to a Buddhist attempt to convert sacrificial cults and integrate their gods into the Buddhist pantheon during this period.

“Historical and inscriptional textual sources seem to provide clues to the Buddhist attempt to convert these sacrificial cults and integrate these gods in their pantheon during this period.”