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Cited by 4Chinese history and philosophyVietnamese History and Culture StudiesWar, Ethics, and Justification

Trial by Power: Some Preliminary Observatrions on the Judicial Roles of Taoist Martial Deities

Open access
Katz, Paul R.·2008·Journal of Chinese Religions
DOI 10.1179/073776908803501150
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Abstract

This paper explores an aspect of Taoist martial deities that previous scholarship has largely overlooked: their judicial roles in exorcistic and military rituals.These roles result from a wide range of factors, including: 1) The development of the Chinese underworld as a judicial bureaucracy featuring not only chthonic deities like the City God (Chenghuang shen 城隍神) and the Emperor of the Eastern Peak (Dongyue dadi 東嶽大帝), but also martial spirits responsible for assisting in judicial rituals; 2) The popularity of Taoist exorcistic liturgies during which priests assumed the status of judicial officials while deploying martial deities to capture and/or annihilate demonic forces; 3) The importance of military rituals (junli 軍禮) such as banner worship (jiqi 祭旗), which often featured Taoist martial deities and could be both judicial and exorcistic in nature.In some cases, Taoist martial gods functioned as law enforcement officers responsible for the capture of demons, but in others they were witnesses to judicial rituals and even potential judges of the guilt or innocence of worshippers.The data presented below is intended to help reorient our understandings of Taoist martial deities as being intimately involved in judicial rites.On a broader level, it also reveals the extensive use of legal procedures, language, and ideas in Chinese rituals.One prominent example of the judicial nature of Taoist martial gods involves the plaguefighting deity Marshal Wen (Wen Yuanshuai 溫 元 帥 ; Wen Qiong 溫 瓊 ).Wen figured prominently in exorcistic rituals that sometimes resembled judicial proceedings, and was also worshipped during indictment rites (fanggao 放告; gao yinzhuang 告陰狀) held in Wenzhou 溫州 during the annual festival in his honor. 1 Wen's judicial features may also be seen in an This paper was originally presented at a 2008 AAS Annual Meeting panel entitled "Images of Rowdy Gods: Interpreting Daoist Martial Deities since the Song Dynasty."I would like to thank my fellow panelists (Poul Andersen, Mark Meulenbeld, David Mozina, and Michael Puett) for their support and inspiration.Thanks also to Chiu Pengsheng 邱彭生, Vincent Goossaert, and Wu Jen-shu 巫仁恕 for their helpful comments.I am also grateful to Mark Csikszentmihalyi, Yong-yun Lee, and the Journal of Chinese Religions staff for their kind assistance, and the Journal's two anonymous reviewers for theirThe importance of Taoist martial deities may also be seen in path-breaking research on the development of Taoist exorcistic rituals, 8 particularly judicial rites referred to as "summonses and interrogations" (kaozhao 考召). 9 One set of these rituals associated with Marshal Wen, the Secret Rites for Summonses and Interrogations by Grand Guardian Wen of the Eastern Peak (Dongyue Wen taibao kaozhao bifa 東嶽溫太保考召祕法), is preserved in juan 卷 254 of the early fourteenth-century ritual compendium entitled Taoist Methods, United in Principle (Daofa huiyuan 道法會元; hereafter abbreviated as DFHY; HY 1220).10 Other martial deities, including Marshal (or General) Zhu (Zhu Yuanshuai 朱元帥; Zhu Jiangjun 朱將軍) of the Thunder Office (Leifu 雷府) and Marshal Ma (Ma Yuanshuai 馬元帥; Ma Sheng 馬勝), figured prominently in Taoist kaozhao rituals as well.11 The case of Marshal Guan (Guan Yuanshuai 關元帥; Guan Yu 關羽) is particularly striking, as he was not only a powerful exorcistic deity, but could also be worshipped by secret society members during oath-making rituals, while members of some spirit-writing groups performed indictment rituals in his presence.12 My paper draws on the data described above, while approaching the issue of martial deities and their judicial/exorcistic functions in light of the important role that religion played in the development of Chinese legal culture.I pay particular attention to the ideology of justice, 13 defined here as extending to the ways in which the gods control all human affairs in this life and the next, including health, wealth, punishment in the underworld after death, and reincarnation.One of the most important conceptual underpinnings of the Chinese ideology of justice is the belief in the inevitability of retribution (baoying 報應), as well as the corollary that justice will prevail, with all wrongdoers eventually suffering some form of punishment, perhaps as quickly as their own lifetimes (xianshibao 現世報).14 The administration of divine retribution involves a wide range of deities who play many different roles.Some observe and record the good and evil deeds of the living, others respond to prayers for divine intervention, while others administer justice in the underworld, which is largely punitive or "legal", as

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Crossref · 10.1179/073776908803501150

Cites

65 of 65 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 32 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Marshal Zhao, though best known as a money god, could also be worshipped as an underworld and exorcistic deity.

    “while Marshal Zhao (Zhao Yuanshuai 趙元帥; Zhao Gongming 趙公明) is best known as a money god, 5 he could also be worshipped as an underworld and exorcistic deity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] source
  • Findingnone given

    Taoist martial gods sometimes were witnesses to judicial rituals.

    “but in others they were witnesses to judicial rituals”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The most common judicial rituals appear to be making oaths and filing underworld indictments.

    “In addition, I consider the importance of judicial rituals, the most common of which appear to be making oaths and filing underworld indictments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    The embodiment of judicial and thunder rites can be seen in a talismanic drawing of the thunder deity Deng Bowen, which contains the characters jiji ru lüling inside his body.

    “The (literal) embodiment of judicial and thunder rites can also be seen in the following talismanic drawing of the thunder deity Deng Bowen 鄧 伯溫, which contains the characters jiji ru lüling 急急如律令 (Quickly, quickly, in accordance with the statutes and ordinances!) inside his body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingreasoning

    Taoist martial gods sometimes were potential judges of the guilt or innocence of worshippers.

    “and even potential judges of the guilt or innocence of worshippers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 16
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 5
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 3

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Taoist exorcistic rituals deployed martial deities, and liturgical manuals described exorcisms as warfare aimed at annihilating spiritual adversaries; martial spirits were summoned before exorcism and charged with capturing demons for interrogation.

    “Apart from their judicial features, another essential facet of the above-mentioned rituals was the deployment of martial deities, with liturgical manuals describing exorcisms as a form of warfare aimed at the annihilation of spiritual adversaries.51”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation

    Song-dynasty officials learned these rituals to assert authority over local cults in southern China, especially non-Han groups; they used judicial rites and trials to capture evil shamans, who were punished under Fengdu's black codes; the texts say the goal was to bring shamans to justice, not kill them, and violence was a last resort after judicial procedures.

    “Such officials would not hesitate to use both judicial rites and actual trials (including tests of ritual prowess) to “capture and hold evil shamans” (shoushe xiewu 收攝邪巫), 56 following which they were to be punished according to the black codes (heilü 黑律) of Fengdu.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Taoist codes prohibited judicial abuses and regulated sepulchral plaints, forbidding dead souls with grievances still being pleaded in chthonic courts from haunting the accused.

    “Taoist codes also attempted to regulate sepulchral plaints, with the Shangqing gusui lingwen guilü forcefully stating that the souls of the dead bearing grievances towards the living but still in the process of pleading their cases in the courts of the chthonic kings were forbidden from haunting the accused”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Representations of justice and expulsion of evil played a key role in military rituals; banner worship rituals featured blood covenants and trials of human victims; since at least the Han, Han and non-Han peoples offered blood sacrifices, including human, to banners, often after trials to determine guilt.

    “Of particular importance are a variety of banner worship rituals (usually referred to as jiqi 祭旗, maya 禡牙, or jianya 建牙) that featured blood covenants and trials of human victims to be sacrificed to the banner.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [70]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Striking examples of historical continuity exist, such as similarities between ancient and modern versions of kaozhao rituals.

    “I have also been heartened by the presence of some striking examples of historical continuity, such as the similarities between ancient and modern versions of kaozhao rituals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Judicial rituals often featured leading underworld deities such as the City God and the Emperor of the Eastern Peak, and also incorporated large numbers of Chinese martial gods.

    “Judicial rituals often featured leading deities of the underworld, including the City God and the Emperor of the Eastern Peak, but as we will see below also incorporated large numbers of Chinese martial gods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The rituals were prevalent throughout Chinese religious history, not only in the Song era; their judicial and martial aspects persisted into the late imperial and modern eras; the author's fieldwork in Taishun County confirms some rituals are still performed today, including the Golden Codes for Curing Epilepsy and elaborate rites where a Taoist dressed as Lord Bao tries deities and a straw替身.

    “My own fieldwork in Taishun 泰順 County (also in southern Zhejiang) confirms that some of the Taoist exorcistic rituals described above are still being performed today.64”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wen Qiong is depicted as a martial figure over nine feet tall who served the Tang commander Guo Ziyi in the campaign against An Lushan.

    “which describes him as a martial figure over nine feet tall, who serves the Tang commander Guo Ziyi 郭子儀 (697-781) in his campaign against the forces of An Lushan 安祿山 (703-757).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Katz, Demon Hordes, 79-80

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Chinese ideas of justice required distinguishing illegitimate hauntings by unruly dead from legitimate retribution by aggrieved dead; dead souls with legitimate grievances could indict the living in underworld courts and, if approved, return to take vengeance, making exorcism of such spirits nearly impossible.

    “This in turn points to another essential facet of the Chinese ideology of justice, namely the need to differentiate between illegitimate hauntings by the unruly dead and legitimate retribution by the aggrieved dead.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Research on other prominent martial deities indicates their judicial and exorcistic characteristics.

    “Research on other prominent martial deities further indicates their judicial and exorcistic characteristics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationown data

    The data suggest that Chinese religious traditions have long featured an intricate overlap between exorcistic, judicial, and military rituals; three themes are particularly relevant: divine justice/retribution, the importance of Taoist martial deities, and violence; Taoist ritual activities from the beginning included judicial and martial dimensions, and sanctioned violence contributed to a judic

    “The data presented above suggests that Chinese religious traditions have long featured an intricate overlap between exorcistic, judicial, and military rituals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The textual and ethnographic sources used accurately represent the ritual practices they describe.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The rituals overlap with actual judicial practices, including beatings and cangues; some punishments resemble underworld torments, such as fire jails or fire wheel talismans; this reflects a distorting mimesis in which the underworld judicial system reflects and refashions actual legal practice.

    “This in turn seems to reflect the “distorting mimesis” of the homology between worldly legal institutions and their representations in Chinese religious traditions, as the underworld judicial system not only reflects actual legal practice but also refashions it, with depictions of underworld torments serving to remind viewers of earthly punishments, even if such punishments were not identical.68”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Chinese judicial practice constituted a continuum covering both the official and religious realms, with considerable interaction between the two.

    “This in turn suggests that Chinese judicial practice constituted a continuum covered both the official and religious realms, with considerable interaction occurring between the two.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The punitive nature of the Chinese underworld and the idea of moral death became clearer with the advent of religious Taoism during the Eastern Han dynasty.

    “The punitive nature of the Chinese underworld, as well as the idea of moral death, became even clearer with the advent of religious Taoism during the Eastern Han dynasty.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    After his death, Wen Qiong became a minor official in the Temple of the Eastern Peak's bureaucracy, and the Emperor of the Eastern Peak placed him in charge of the registers of life and death.

    “Subsequently, Wen joins the Temple of the Eastern Peak, and after his death becomes a minor official in the temple's bureaucracy.His diligent service of the Tao greatly impresses the Emperor of the Eastern Peak, who accepts Wen into the temple's judicial bureaucracy by placing him in charge of the registers of life and death (shengsibu 生死簿).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Katz, Demon Hordes, 80-88

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Junior figures may desire autonomy but can achieve it only by either challenging patriarchal authority (an unfilial act) or biding their time.

    “These junior figures may desire autonomy, but can achieve it only by either the unfilial act of challenging patriarchal authority or biding their time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Boretz, "Righteous Brothers and Demon Slayers"

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Feuchtwang, Popular Religion in China, 27-62

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Sangren, "Myths, Gods, and Family Relations"

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The Song-era trends in the judicial roles of Taoist martial deities may have been due in part to a reaction by some Chinese elites against the horrors of centuries of warfare, combined with a shift from valuing civil and military skills equally to emphasizing civil skills over military ones.

    “The reasons why these trends occurred during the Song have yet to be fully understood, but I would advance the hypothesis that this may have been in part due to a reaction by some Chinese elites against the horrors of centuries of warfare, combined with a shift from the ideal of civil and military skills being of equal value (wenwu bingzhong 文武並重) to one of emphasizing civil skills over military”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fu Lecheng, Zhongguo tongshi

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McMullen, "The Cult of Qi Taigong"

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The Song-era trends in the judicial roles of Taoist martial deities are real phenomena whose causes are not yet fully understood.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Another factor in the Song-era trends may be increasing instances of civil officials assuming leadership over military forces, a pattern that continued into the late imperial and modern eras.

    “Another factor may be increasing instances of civil officials assuming leadership over military forces, which continued into the late imperial and modern eras, with prominent examples including Wang Yangming 王陽明 (1472-1529), Zeng Guofan 曾國藩 (1812-1885), and Li Hongzhang 李鴻 章 (1823-1901).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van de Ven, "Introduction," 8-9

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The Song-era trends in the judicial roles of Taoist martial deities are real phenomena whose causes are not yet fully understood.
18 of 18

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Previous scholarship has largely overlooked the judicial roles of Taoist martial deities in exorcistic and military rituals.

    “This paper explores an aspect of Taoist martial deities that previous scholarship has largely overlooked: their judicial roles in exorcistic and military rituals.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The data for premodern China are insufficient for undertaking in-depth research on ritual traditions at the local or regional levels.

    “Because the data for premodern China are insufficient for undertaking in-depth research on ritual traditions at the local or regional levels, this paper merely presents broad-based discussions of various phenomena related to this topic”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The perceived ability of Taoists to employ legalistic rituals to manipulate the celestial and chthonic bureaucracies may have contributed to their social standing and income.

    “It also seems reasonable to assume that the perceived ability of Taoists to employ legalistic rituals to manipulate the celestial and chthonic bureaucracies may have contributed to their social standing and income”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The textual and ethnographic sources used accurately represent the ritual practices they describe.

    “My own fieldwork in Taishun 泰順 County (also in southern Zhejiang) confirms that some of the Taoist exorcistic rituals described above are still being performed today.64”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Song-era trends in the judicial roles of Taoist martial deities are real phenomena whose causes are not yet fully understood.

    “The reasons why these trends occurred during the Song have yet to be fully understood”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting title for Bodde's book

    Minor

    The citation calls the book "Festivals of Classical China," but its bibliography entry calls it "Festivals in Classical China."

  • Conflicting title for Katz's book on the Ta-pa-ni Incident

    Minor

    The citation and bibliography give different titles for the same Katz book: one says "Ran Blood Red," while the other says "Turned Blood Red."

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 11

  1. 1979, 24, 95
  2. 2007, 1, 165
  3. 1994, 5, 13
  4. 2003, 3, 1
  5. 1995, 9, 55
  6. 2002, 138, 279
  7. 2003, 2, 1
  8. 2003, 3, 105
  9. 1992, 46, 51
  10. 2002, 36, 16
  11. 1994, 5, 1

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Authors
Katz, P. R.
Affiliations
Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica (TW)
Corresponding author
Katz, Paul R.
ORCID
Katz, Paul R.
Venue
Journal of Chinese Religions
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2008-06
Volume
36
Issue
1
Pages
54-83
ISSN
  • 0737-769X (ISSN-L)
  • 2050-8999
DOI
10.1179/073776908803501150
OpenAlex
W2333290655
Cited by
4
References
61
Citations by year
2018: 1 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 1
FWCI
1.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Journal of Chinese Religions (publishedVersion)
  • Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Chinese history and philosophy
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Vietnamese History and Culture Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › War, Ethics, and Justification
Keywords
exorcism, military ceremonies, city god

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