Technology-Mediated Second Language Vocabulary Development: A Review of Trends in Research Methodology

“The differences in the developmental trajectories are associated with quality of lexical representations (Perfetti, 2007) and quality of L2 lexical-semantic networks, at different proficiencies (Elgort et al., 2015; Elgort & Piasecki, 2014).”

“VK may be elicited by administering tasks that present target words or multi-word units in isolation (e.g., LexTALE , by Lemhöfer & Broersma, 2012), in limited contexts (e.g., VST, by Nation & Beglar, 2007), or by observing and analyzing real linguistic behavior and artifacts produced by language…”

“…using standardized language proficiency tests: TOEFL (n = 11), CERF (n = 10), TOEIC (n = 6), Cambridge English Proficiency tests (n = 2), Oxford English Placement Test (n = 1); and VK tests: The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (n = 3) and Vocabulary Levels Test (Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001).”

“Vocabulary knowledge is a multidimensional construct that has been understood and categorized in L2 education research in many different ways (Elgort & Nation, 2010; Henriksen, 1999; Read, 2004; Wesche & Paribakht, 1996).”

“Vocabulary knowledge is a multidimensional construct that has been understood and categorized in L2 education research in many different ways (Elgort & Nation, 2010; Henriksen, 1999; Read, 2004; Wesche & Paribakht, 1996).”

“Nation (2007) proposed that, in a well-designed language-learning curriculum, equal amounts of time should be spent on activities representing the following four learning strands: meaning-focused input (MFI, e.g., extensive listening and reading), meaning-focused output (MFO, e.g., speaking,…”

“…2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016; Gobel & Kano, 2014) or studies of extramural language use (e.g., Jensen, 2017; Sylven & Sundqvist, 2012).”

“The latter were studies that incorporated mobile-assisted language learning (e.g., Amer, 2014; Andu-jar, 2016; Stockwell, 2010; Terantino, 2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g.,…”

“A closer examination suggests that over half of the KoU codes were associated with the measures of collocational aspect of word knowledge, which is a growing area of interest in second language vocabulary research (Schmitt, 2004; Wray, 2002).”

“…Boers, & Housen, 2013) or task completion (Michel & Smith, 2017; Smith, 2012), recognition, processing, and retrieval times in priming manipulations (Elgort, 2011; Elgort & Piasecki, 2014), or neurological markers of lexical processing, such as N400 (Elgort, Perfetti, Rickles, & Stafura, 2015;…”

“…2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016; Gobel & Kano, 2014) or studies of extramural language use (e.g., Jensen, 2017; Sylven & Sundqvist, 2012).”

“…tools, such as digital glosses and dictionaries (e.g., Hu, Vongpumivitch, Chang, & Liou, 2014; Türk & Erçetin, 2014) and video-based activities with different types of captioning, subtitling, or audio support (e.g., Mohsen, 2016; Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014; Sydo-renko, 2010).”

“…aspects of language processing that are not available to learners’ conscious control or report, such as their eye-movements during reading (Elgort, Brysbaert, Stevens, & Van Assche, 2017; Godfroid, Boers, & Housen, 2013) or task completion (Michel & Smith, 2017; Smith, 2012), recognition,…”

“…during reading (Elgort, Brysbaert, Stevens, & Van Assche, 2017; Godfroid, Boers, & Housen, 2013) or task completion (Michel & Smith, 2017; Smith, 2012), recognition, processing, and retrieval times in priming manipulations (Elgort, 2011; Elgort & Piasecki, 2014), or neurological markers…”

“Studies that incorporated real language use tended to cover more knowledge aspects (e.g., five aspects: Milton et al., 2012; four aspects: Andujar, 2016; Rusanganwa, 2013; Seedhouse et al., 2013).”

“…contexts (e.g., VST, by Nation & Beglar, 2007), or by observing and analyzing real linguistic behavior and artifacts produced by language learners, for example, by measuring lexical richness or lexical diversity in writing (Crossley, Salsbury, & McNamara, 2012) or online chat (Sauro & Smith, 2010).”

“Following Hulstijn (2013), vocabulary learning is considered incidental if it is not the primary focus of the activity in which a person is engaged.”

“…contexts (e.g., VST, by Nation & Beglar, 2007), or by observing and analyzing real linguistic behavior and artifacts produced by language learners, for example, by measuring lexical richness or lexical diversity in writing (Crossley, Salsbury, & McNamara, 2012) or online chat (Sauro & Smith, 2010).”

“In a meta-analysis of studies on computer-assisted L2 vocabulary instruction, Chiu (2013) reported a larger effect size for learning L2 vocabulary without the help of a teacher ( d = 1.379, p = 0.001) than with teacher aid ( d = 0.214, p = 0.068).”

“…were reading studies with access to reference tools, such as digital glosses and dictionaries (e.g., Hu, Vongpumivitch, Chang, & Liou, 2014; Türk & Erçetin, 2014) and video-based activities with different types of captioning, subtitling, or audio support (e.g., Mohsen, 2016; Montero Perez,…”

“Dizon (2016), for example, investigated Facebook-mediated writing development, using focused freewriting, in which participants received peer feedback.”

“Vyatkina (2016), for example, used DDL for teaching lexico-grammatical constructions in German; the con-trol group followed a deductive presentation-practice-production approach using rule-based textbook exercises with a pair discussion at the end (MFO + LF), while the experimental group engaged in…”

“…(Michel & Smith, 2017; Smith, 2012), recognition, processing, and retrieval times in priming manipulations (Elgort, 2011; Elgort & Piasecki, 2014), or neurological markers of lexical processing, such as N400 (Elgort, Perfetti, Rickles, & Stafura, 2015; McLaugh-lin, Osterhout, & Kim, 2004).”

“It also appears that opportunities for fluency development are not prioritized in the reviewed studies; there was only one study (Cobb & Horst, 2011) that explicitly emphasized fluency development in the treatment description (in the form of “lexical access speed practice”).”

“For example, in a study that examined the effect of playing a simulation game on vocabulary retention (Franciosi et al., 2016), the treatment group used an online vocabulary learning application (Quizlet) in conjunction with playing the 3rd World Farmer game (DL+C), while the control group only…”

“…in two observational, qualitative studies, one of which examined vocabulary learning opportunities afforded by a virtual 3D learning environment (Milton, Jonsen, Hirst, & Lindenburn, 2012) and the other examined the nature of preschool-aged children’s use of iPads for independent language…”

“…Amer, 2014; Andu-jar, 2016; Stockwell, 2010; Terantino, 2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016; Gobel & Kano, 2014) or studies of extramural language…”

“Vocabulary knowledge is a multidimensional construct that has been understood and categorized in L2 education research in many different ways (Elgort & Nation, 2010; Henriksen, 1999; Read, 2004; Wesche & Paribakht, 1996).”

“Studies that incorporated real language use tended to cover more knowledge aspects (e.g., five aspects: Milton et al., 2012; four aspects: Andujar, 2016; Rusanganwa, 2013; Seedhouse et al., 2013).”

“Another group of studies that used IL+S treatments was CMC studies with peer-or instructor-generated feedback (e.g., Diez-Bedmar & Perez-Paredes, 2012; Dizon, 2016).”

“Four aspects of knowledge were also evaluated in a study that used self-report measures (Esit, 2011) and in a longitudinal study that used a battery of observational and empirical tests with school children (Cobb & Horst, 2011).”

“The latter were studies that incorporated mobile-assisted language learning (e.g., Amer, 2014; Andu-jar, 2016; Stockwell, 2010; Terantino, 2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g.,…”

“…tools, such as digital glosses and dictionaries (e.g., Hu, Vongpumivitch, Chang, & Liou, 2014; Türk & Erçetin, 2014) and video-based activities with different types of captioning, subtitling, or audio support (e.g., Mohsen, 2016; Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014; Sydo-renko, 2010).”

“Alvarez-Marinelli et al. (2016), for example, compared two experimental CALL curricula with an established teacher-only national English language development curriculum.”

“…2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016; Gobel & Kano, 2014) or studies of extramural language use (e.g., Jensen, 2017; Sylven & Sundqvist, 2012).”

“Gordani (2013) investigated the effect integrating an online corpus-based learning into reading comprehension classes and found that it had a positive effect on vocabulary development, compared to the text-book only approach.”

“Two main types of studies that used IL+S treatments were reading studies with access to reference tools, such as digital glosses and dictionaries (e.g., Hu, Vongpumivitch, Chang, & Liou, 2014; Türk & Erçetin, 2014) and video-based activities with different types of captioning, subtitling, or audio support (e.g., Mohse…”

“…2013) or task completion (Michel & Smith, 2017; Smith, 2012), recognition, processing, and retrieval times in priming manipulations (Elgort, 2011; Elgort & Piasecki, 2014), or neurological markers of lexical processing, such as N400 (Elgort, Perfetti, Rickles, & Stafura, 2015; McLaugh-lin,…”

“…(2016) study that investigated the effect of mobile instant messaging (using WhatsApp) on the accuracy and complexity of students’ writing, and DeHaan, Johnson, Yoshimura, and Kondo (2012) who investigated the effect of using wikis on the development of oral communication skills in a…”

“…qualitative studies, one of which examined vocabulary learning opportunities afforded by a virtual 3D learning environment (Milton, Jonsen, Hirst, & Lindenburn, 2012) and the other examined the nature of preschool-aged children’s use of iPads for independent language learning (Terantino, 2016).”

“…(e.g., Amer, 2014; Andu-jar, 2016; Stockwell, 2010; Terantino, 2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016; Gobel & Kano, 2014) or studies of…”

“…game-based studies incorporated both incidental learning procedures and supplementary materials that facilitated language learning; for example, Shintaku (2016) explored the interplay of game design and pedagogical mediation for learners of Japanese using a commercial off-the-shelf game with…”

“Another example is the French Digital Kitchen project; Seedhouse et al. (2013) created a task, in which participants cooked a dish in a real kitchen using utensils with built-in digital sensor technology, following verbal instructions in their L2 (French), with access to L1 translations and…”

“…2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016; Gobel & Kano, 2014) or studies of extramural language use (e.g., Jensen, 2017; Sylven & Sundqvist, 2012).”

“…such as their eye-movements during reading (Elgort, Brysbaert, Stevens, & Van Assche, 2017; Godfroid, Boers, & Housen, 2013) or task completion (Michel & Smith, 2017; Smith, 2012), recognition, processing, and retrieval times in priming manipulations (Elgort, 2011; Elgort & Piasecki, 2014), or…”

“…additional language-focused activities (Mare-fat & Hassanzadeh, 2016), or playing a digital game with and without access to word definitions (Alghamdi, 2016), and studies that compared two different types of technologies, e.g., vocabulary development from playing a digital simulation game…”

“…incorporated mobile-assisted language learning (e.g., Amer, 2014; Andu-jar, 2016; Stockwell, 2010; Terantino, 2016), intercultural exchanges (e.g., Lin, 2016) and other CMC studies (e.g., Kozar, 2016; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011), and longitudinal studies (e.g., Chukharev-Hudilainen & Klepikova, 2016;…”

“Asother MALL meta-analyses have attested, experimental MALL studies suffer from numerous design-related shortcomings (Burston, 2015; Chwo, Marek & Wu, 2018; Elgort, 2018; Lee, 2019; Shadiev, Liu & Hwang, 2020; Viberg & Grönlund, 2012).”

“The existing research syntheses have highlighted critical gaps in the field of technology and L2 learning, the first of which is a paucity of studies on PreK-12 L2 learners (Abraham, 2008; Elgort, 2018; Grgurovic et al., 2013; Lin & Lin, 2019).”

“Elgort et al. conducted a simr power analysis with the results from a previous meaning generation task (Elgort, 2017), which were collected from an L2 sample with comparable proficiency and backgrounds to Elgort et al.’s (2020) participants.”

“In general, it is believed that a higher knowledge in English would have resulted in greater vocabulary gains, since, as Elgort [75] states, ‘vocabulary development progresses differently for low-and highproficiency learners, even when level-appropriate L2 input is used’, especially considering the moderately positive…”

“Learners with lower proficiencies might have to work very hard to learn, which they might consider as a time-consuming task (Elgort, 2017).”

“On the other hand, sensitive measures can also tap into tacit/implicit knowledge (Elgort, 2011; Sonbul & Schmitt, 2013), that is, knowledge that is not available to learners’ conscious control or report (Elgort, 2018).”

“Meta-analysis studies, [Ebrahimzadeh and Alavi 2016, Elgot 2018] summarize the different types of research on technology-mediated vocabulary learning: specialized CALL software, digital reference resources such as online dictionaries, corporamediated learning, mobile learning, and others.”

“Most EFL teachers adopt usage-based learning strategies (Elgort, 2017; Lin, 2014) in their regular face-to-face classes as most L1 teachers do.”

“Web-based resources such as large publicly accessible corpora have been applied in different integrative focus-on-form approaches to lexical and morpho-syntactic development (Elgort, 2017; Flowerdew, 2015; Golonka et al., 2014).”

“It refers to any proposed or by-product educational activity designed to encourage language learners to pay attention to language (Elgort, 2017).”

“However, learning vocabulary and focusing on vocabulary development should include “moving beyond single words and direct first language (L1)” and second language (L2) equivalencies (Coxhead, 2015; Elgort, 2017).”

“This is, again, in line with current trends in mainstream L2 vocabulary research (Elgort, 2018, pp. 13-14).”