Effect of Germinated Different Colored Bean Flours as Functional Ingredients on Technological, Bioactive and Sensory Quality of Rice Flour Muffins

“The ABTS radical (Sigma-Aldrich) scavenging test, a method developed by Re et al .”

“These measurements were performed in triplicate and then averaged to provide a mean value (Singleton & Rossi, 1965).”

“= (A0−A1/A0)×100 where A0 is the absorbance of the DPPH solution without antioxidant and A1 is the absorbance of DPPH in the presence of antioxidant (Jia Zhishen et al. , 1999).”

“The water absorption capacity was then calculated according to the formula below (Adegunwa et al. , 2020; Beuchat, 1977).”

“It has also been reported that the water retention capacity of flours influences their baking properties, which are affected by the flour’s polysaccharide content and protein quality (Hodge, 1976; Kaur & Singh, 2005).”

“Germination has been shown to increase the total flavonoid content in varying amounts in chickpeas and red lentils (Singh et al. , 2017).”

“…be in the range of 0.8–1.7 g/ml Thanks to the proteins they contain, legumes can exhibit various functional properties such as water retention, gel formation, emulsification, oil absorption, and foaming capacity (Adebiyi & Aluko, 2011; Barac et al. , 2015; Gupta et al. , 2018; Wang et al. , 2020).”

“Since gluten plays an important role in product quality, its absence can lead to technological challenges (Torbica et al. , 2010; Wesley et al. , 2021).”

“Zhang et al .”

“%) was calculated according to the following formula (Abbey & Ibeh, 1988): Oil absorption Weight of oil absorbed (g) 100.”

“Various studies on legumes have reported that different germination process conditions can alter the phenolic and antioxidant content of legumes (Aguilera et al. , 2011; Lin & Lai, 2006; López et al. , 2013).”

“Moreover, another study reported that the formation of CO 2 caused the expansion of air bubbles, leading to a decrease in Effect of Germinated Different Colored Bean Flours muffin springiness, which was attributed to a more aerated structure and higher specific volume (Matos et al. , 2014).”

“One study explained that dark-colored beans, in addition to having phenolic compounds, contained high levels of anthocyanins responsible for the seed color (Lin et al. , 2008).”

“At the same time, legumes are emerging as an alternative protein source for the future with sustainable production (Benítez et al. , 2013; Martín-Cabrejas et al. , 2008; Ohanenye et al. , 2020).”

“In a study comparing soybeans with germinated starter beans, the total phenolic content was higher on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 5th days of germination, and it was stated that germination increased the antioxidant capacity of mung beans (Huang et al. , 2014).”

“There is also an increasing demand for foods rich in protein to address nutrient deficiencies among humans (Benítez et al. , 2013; Sridhar & Seena, 2006).”

“The germination process has been investigated for a variety of grain types and has been reported to have beneficial effects, such as increased bioactive compounds and improved protein digestibility (Cornejo et al. , 2015).”

“Various studies on legumes have reported that different germination process conditions can alter the phenolic and antioxidant content of legumes (Aguilera et al. , 2011; Lin & Lai, 2006; López et al. , 2013).”

“During this test, the temperature was increased from 25°C to 120°C at a rate of 5°C/min, while the change in the storage modulus (G ʹ ) with respect to temperature was monitored (Toker et al. , 2015).”

“To improve certain properties of the formulation and address these deficiencies, there is a need to develop new recipes by adding (Lovis, 2003; Rai et al. , 2014; Wesley et al. , 2021) or combining (Mancebo et al. , 2016; Wesley et al. , 2021) other agents containing protein or starch.”

“The higher rate of water in the muffin batter may facilitate the movement of the particles (Shevkani & Singh, 2014).”

“There is also an increasing demand for foods rich in protein to address nutrient deficiencies among humans (Benítez et al. , 2013; Sridhar & Seena, 2006).”

“Various studies on legumes have reported that different germination process conditions can alter the phenolic and antioxidant content of legumes (Aguilera et al. , 2011; Lin & Lai, 2006; López et al. , 2013).”

“To improve certain properties of the formulation and address these deficiencies, there is a need to develop new recipes by adding (Lovis, 2003; Rai et al. , 2014; Wesley et al. , 2021) or combining (Mancebo et al. , 2016; Wesley et al. , 2021) other agents containing protein or starch.”

“At the same time, legumes are emerging as an alternative protein source for the future with sustainable production (Benítez et al. , 2013; Martín-Cabrejas et al. , 2008; Ohanenye et al. , 2020).”

“Most of the phenolic content found in legume seeds is located in the shell (Magalhaes et al. , 2017).”

“…be in the range of 0.8–1.7 g/ml Thanks to the proteins they contain, legumes can exhibit various functional properties such as water retention, gel formation, emulsification, oil absorption, and foaming capacity (Adebiyi & Aluko, 2011; Barac et al. , 2015; Gupta et al. , 2018; Wang et al. , 2020).”

“Germinated and sprouted foods may be used to improve phytochemical and functional quality (Dueñas et al. , 2015).”

“When determining quality specifications, the relationship between consumer acceptance and descriptive panel responses should be established (Suwonsichon, 2019).”

“Studies have shown that the rich mineral content of legumes is effective in ash content (Jeong & Chung, 2019; Jood et al. , 1988).”

“Among cereal products, muffins are commonly chosen by consumers and can be prepared with diverse formulations, making them a suitable option to incorporate legumes in a more flavorful way (Bravo-Núñez & Gómez, 2023; Kaur & Kaur, 2018; Köten, 2021).”

“It was reported that the protein content in breads containing 5%–25% sprouted bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris) increased from 9.22% to 12.69% (Atudorei et al. , 2021).”

“The dynamic flow characteristics of the batters were defined by the derived parameters K ʹ , K ʺ , n ʹ , and n ʺ ( Italian Journal of Food Science, 2025; 37 (2) Cakir E et al. batter density and, consequently, a decrease in batter consistency during the heating process (Taberner et al ., 2007).”

“Xijun et al .”

“Previous studies have shown that higher levels of chick-pea protein result in a firmer crumb structure, with increased hardness attributed to the formation of cross-linked molecules between polysaccharides and proteins (Shaabani et al ., 2018).”

“…be in the range of 0.8–1.7 g/ml Thanks to the proteins they contain, legumes can exhibit various functional properties such as water retention, gel formation, emulsification, oil absorption, and foaming capacity (Adebiyi & Aluko, 2011; Barac et al. , 2015; Gupta et al. , 2018; Wang et al. , 2020).”

“…be in the range of 0.8–1.7 g/ml Thanks to the proteins they contain, legumes can exhibit various functional properties such as water retention, gel formation, emulsification, oil absorption, and foaming capacity (Adebiyi & Aluko, 2011; Barac et al. , 2015; Gupta et al. , 2018; Wang et al. , 2020).”

“Among cereal products, muffins are commonly chosen by consumers and can be prepared with diverse formulations, making them a suitable option to incorporate legumes in a more flavorful way (Bravo-Núñez & Gómez, 2023; Kaur & Kaur, 2018; Köten, 2021).”

“Porosity values are consistent with the specific volumes of the muffins, as a high porous structure leads to a high volume of muffins. did not create a significant difference in antioxidants (p<0.05) ( Müller et al. , 2021).”

“Additionally, the inclusion of whey protein has been shown to enhance hardness, likely due to protein denaturation and aggregation, which leads to the formation of a solid protein network during high-temperature baking (Ammar et al ., 2021; Dhillon et al ., 2023).”

“Since gluten plays an important role in product quality, its absence can lead to technological challenges (Torbica et al. , 2010; Wesley et al. , 2021).”

“The water absorption capacity was then calculated according to the formula below (Adegunwa et al. , 2020; Beuchat, 1977).”

“…this perspective, plant proteins appear to be a focus for solutions to the demand for new food types with high nutrient value and functional benefits, linked to scarcity, diseases, and changes in consumption habits (Guajardo‐Flores et al. , 2017; MacInnis & Hodson, 2021; Movahhed et al. , 2020).”

“Studies have shown that the rich mineral content of legumes is effective in ash content (Jeong & Chung, 2019; Jood et al. , 1988).”

“The desired cakes are attributed to small porosity which provides high volume (Amani et al. , 2022; Tsatsaragkou et al. , 2015).”

“For bean-flour-enriched batters, the increase in protein content may cause an increase in batter consistency, which may be attributed to the interaction of proteins with starches (Kaur et al. , 2022).”

“Sensory analysis was conducted according to the method of Ávila et al .”

“The desired cakes are attributed to small porosity which provides high volume (Amani et al. , 2022; Tsatsaragkou et al. , 2015).”

“Total yeast mold counts on muffin samples were determined on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) (Merck) spread plates, which were incubated at 25 °C for 48 h according to the spread plate method (Salazar et al. , 2021).”

“…this perspective, plant proteins appear to be a focus for solutions to the demand for new food types with high nutrient value and functional benefits, linked to scarcity, diseases, and changes in consumption habits (Guajardo‐Flores et al. , 2017; MacInnis & Hodson, 2021; Movahhed et al. , 2020).”

“Among cereal products, muffins are commonly chosen by consumers and can be prepared with diverse formulations, making them a suitable option to incorporate legumes in a more flavorful way (Bravo-Núñez & Gómez, 2023; Kaur & Kaur, 2018; Köten, 2021).”

“…phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity of composite flour muffins made with finger millet flour, germinated black soybean meal, and kenaf leaf powder at different concentrations were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than the control cake (Mitharwal & Chauhan, 2022).”

“Additionally, the inclusion of whey protein has been shown to enhance hardness, likely due to protein denaturation and aggregation, which leads to the formation of a solid protein network during high-temperature baking (Ammar et al ., 2021; Dhillon et al ., 2023).”

“The incorporation of guar bean flour into muffins has been shown to enhance sensory attributes and extend shelf life (Sharma et al. , 2016).”

“In another study, the protein content of germinated kidney bean flour increased from 20.77% to 23.36% (Sibian & Riar, 2023).”

“The growing popularity Italian Journal of Food Science, 2025; 37 (2) Cakir E et al. of vegan consumption styles and the need for innovative products that do not contain gluten for consumers with celiac disease have led to a higher demand for cereal products (Giraje & Hedaoo, 2019).”

“Both bean formulations exhibited high springiness values, which is indicative of better-quality cupcake with an aerated and elastic crumb structure [16].”