Energy and Policy Considerations for Modern Deep Learning Research
Open accessAbstract
The field of artificial intelligence has experienced a dramatic methodological shift towards large neural networks trained on plentiful data. This shift has been fueled by recent advances in hardware and techniques enabling remarkable levels of computation, resulting in impressive advances in AI across many applications. However, the massive computation required to obtain these exciting results is costly both financially, due to the price of specialized hardware and electricity or cloud compute time, and to the environment, as a result of non-renewable energy used to fuel modern tensor processing hardware. In a paper published this year at ACL, we brought this issue to the attention of NLP researchers by quantifying the approximate financial and environmental costs of training and tuning neural network models for NLP (Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum 2019). In this extended abstract, we briefly summarize our findings in NLP, incorporating updated estimates and broader information from recent related publications, and provide actionable recommendations to reduce costs and improve equity in the machine learning and artificial intelligence community.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The training process alone for GenAI is estimated to have emitted 284 tonnes of CO2.
“The training process alone, for example, is estimated to have emitted 284 tonnes of CO2 [17].”
From Generative AI in Higher Education: Balancing Innovation and Integrity (2025) · cites this paper as [17]
Cites
Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, L., & Polosukhin, I. (2017) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1706.03762 · Cited by 120,404 · see citing works
Xception: Deep Learning with Depthwise Separable Convolutions
Chollet, F. (2017) · 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2017.195 · Cited by 20,380 · see citing works
Deep Contextualized Word Representations
Peters, M., Neumann, M., Iyyer, M., Gardner, M., Clark, C., Lee, K., & Zettlemoyer, L. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/n18-1202 · Cited by 11,983 · see citing works
Mastering the game of Go without human knowledge
Silver, D., Schrittwieser, J., Simonyan, K., Antonoglou, I., Huang, A., Guez, A., Hubert, T., Baker, L., Lai, M., Bolton, A., et al. (2017) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature24270 · Cited by 9,084 · see citing works
Large Scale GAN Training for High Fidelity Natural Image Synthesis
Brock, A., Donahue, J., & Simonyan, K. (2018) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1809.11096 · Cited by 3,717 · see citing works
Energy and Policy Considerations for Deep Learning in NLP
Strubell, E., Ganesh, A., & McCallum, A. (2019) · Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.18653/v1/p19-1355 · Cited by 3,684 · see citing works
Self-citationLinguistically-Informed Self-Attention for Semantic Role Labeling
Strubell, E., Verga, P. W., Andor, D., Weiss, D., & McCallum, A. (2018) · Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/d18-1548 · Cited by 412 · see citing works
Self-citationQuantifying the Carbon Emissions of Machine Learning
Lacoste, A., Luccioni, A., Schmidt, V., & Dandres, T. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1910.09700 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Massively Multilingual Neural Machine Translation
Aharoni, R., Johnson, M., & Firat, O. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/n19-1388 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
So, D. R., Liang, C., & Le, Q. V. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1901.11117 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Show Your Work: Improved Reporting of Experimental Results
Dodge, J., Gururangan, S., Card, D., Schwartz, R., & Smith, N. A. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/d19-1224 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Solving the Rubik’s cube with deep reinforcement learning and search
Agostinelli, F., McAleer, S., Shmakov, A., & Baldi, P. (2019) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-019-0070-z · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Schwartz, R., Dodge, J., Smith, N. A., & Etzioni, O. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1907.10597 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding
Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2018) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1810.04805
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
High-Resolution Image Synthesis with Latent Diffusion Models
Rombach, R., Blattmann, A., Lorenz, D., Esser, P., & Ommer, B. (2022) · 2022 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr52688.2022.01042 · Cited by 15,880 · see citing works
Physics for neuromorphic computing
Marković, D., Mizrahi, F. A., Querlioz, D., & Grollier, J. (2020) · Nature Reviews Physics · doi:10.1038/s42254-020-0208-2 · Cited by 1,200 · see citing works
Challenges in deploying machine learning: A survey of case studies
Paleyes, A., Urma, R.-G., & Lawrence, N. D. (2023) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3533378 · Cited by 638 · see citing works
Edge learning using a fully integrated neuro-inspired memristor chip
Zhang, W., Yao, P., Gao, B., Liu, Q., Wu, D. M., Zhang, Q., Li, Y., Qin, Q., Li, J., Zhu, Z., et al. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.ade3483 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
Fan, Z., Yan, Z., & Wen, S. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151813493 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
A Comprehensive Survey on TinyML
Abadade, Y., Temouden, A., Bamoumen, H., Benamar, N., Chtouki, Y., & Hafid, A. S. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3294111 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
“Authors in [9] evaluated the estimated cost of training some benchmark Deep Learning (DL) algorithms, in terms of CO2 emissions and cloud compute time.”
BackgroundA comprehensive review of model compression techniques in machine learning
Dantas, P. V., da Silva, W. S., Cordeiro, L. C., & Carvalho, C. B. (2024) · Applied Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s10489-024-05747-w · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Deep learning for air pollutant concentration prediction: A review
Zhang, B., Rong, Y., Yong, R., Qin, D., Li, M., Zou, G., & Pan, J. (2022) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119347 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Garzón, A., Kapelan, Z. S., Langeveld, J., & Taormina, R. (2022) · Water Resources Research · doi:10.1029/2021wr031808 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Intelligent disassembly of electric-vehicle batteries: a forward-looking overview
Meng, K., Xu, G., Peng, X., Youcef‐Toumi, K., & Li, J. (2022) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106207 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Vertical Stacked LEGO-PoL CPU Voltage Regulator
Baek, J.-I., Elasser, Y., Radhakrishnan, K., Gan, H., Douglas, J. P., Krishnamurthy, H. K., Li, X., Jiang, S., Sullivan, C. R., & Chen, M. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/tpel.2021.3135386 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Hagos, D. H., Battle, R., & Rawat, D. B. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tai.2024.3444742 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Delanoë, P., Tchuente, D., & Colin, G. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117261 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Green and sustainable AI research: an integrated thematic and topic modeling analysis
Raghu Raman, R., Pattnaik, D., Lathabai, H. H., Kumar, C., Govindan, K., & Nedungadi, P. (2024) · Journal Of Big Data · doi:10.1186/s40537-024-00920-x · Cited by 171 · see citing works
A Practical Survey on Faster and Lighter Transformers
Fournier, Q., Caron, G. M., & Aloise, D. (2023) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3586074 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
The Rise of Artificial Intelligence in Educational Measurement: Opportunities and Ethical Challenges
Bulut, O., Beiting-Parrish, M., Casabianca, J., Slater, S. C., Jiao, H., Song, D., Ormerod, C., Fabiyi, D. G., Ivan, R., Walsh, C., et al. (2024) · Chinese/English Journal of Educational Measurement and Evaluation · doi:10.59863/miql7785 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence and work: a critical review of recent research from the social sciences
Deranty, J.-P., & Corbin, T. (2024) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-022-01496-x · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Similarly, in a world prone to climate crisis, the environmental impact of AI (Corbett 2018; Dhar 2020; Lucivero 2020; Strubell et al. 2020; van Wynsberghe 2021) might well constrain its deployment, at least if sustainability becomes a serious parameter in economic activity (Nishant et al. 2020 for…”
Ethics Sheet for Automatic Emotion Recognition and Sentiment Analysis
Mohammad, S. M. (2022) · Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/coli_a_00433 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Ha, S. T., Li, Q., Yang, J. K. W., Demir, H. V., Brongersma, M. L., & Kuznetsov, A. I. (2024) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adm7442 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
A systematic review of intermediate fusion in multimodal deep learning for biomedical applications
Guarrasi, V., Aksu, F., Caruso, C. M., Di Feola, F., Rofena, A., Ruffini, F., & Soda, P. (2025) · Image and Vision Computing · doi:10.1016/j.imavis.2025.105509 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Two‐Dimensional Memtransistors for Non‐Von Neumann Computing: Progress and Challenges
Wali, A., & Das, S. (2023) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202308129 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Transformers for Tabular Data Representation: A Survey of Models and Applications
Badaro, G., Saeed, M., & Papotti, P. (2023) · Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/tacl_a_00544 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Diffusion model-driven smart design and manufacturing: Prospects and challenges
Leng, J., Su, X., Liu, Z., Zhou, L., Chen, C., Guo, X., Wang, Y., Wang, R., Zhang, C., Liu, Q., et al. (2025) · Journal of Manufacturing Systems · doi:10.1016/j.jmsy.2025.07.011 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Measuring and Improving the Energy Efficiency of Large Language Models Inference
Argerich, M. F., & Patiño-Martı́nez, M. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3409745 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Toward Green AI: A Methodological Survey of the Scientific Literature
Barbierato, E., & Gatti, A. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3360705 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence in sustainable development research
Gohr, C., Aboytes, J. G. R., Belomestnykh, S., Berg-Moelleken, D., Chauhan, N., Engler, J., Heydebreck, L. V., Hintz, M. J., Kretschmer, M.-F., Krügermeier, C., et al. (2025) · Nature Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s41893-025-01598-6 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Bevers, N., Sikora, E. J., & Hardy, N. B. (2022) · Computers and Electronics in Agriculture · doi:10.1016/j.compag.2022.107449 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Chadalavada, S., Faust, O., Salvi, M., Seoni, S., Raj, N., Raghavendra, U., Gudigar, A., Barua, P. D., Molinari, F., & Acharya, U. R. (2024) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106312 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Liao, M., Lan, K., & Yao, Y. (2021) · Journal of Industrial Ecology · doi:10.1111/jiec.13214 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Adler, D. A., Wang, F., Mohr, D. C., & Choudhury, T. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266516 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
High-performance deep spiking neural networks with 0.3 spikes per neuron
Stanojevic, A., Woźniak, S., Bellec, G., Cherubini, G., Pantazi, A., & Gerstner, W. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-51110-5 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Quantum Machine Learning: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Perspectives
Lamichhane, P., & Rawat, D. B. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3573244 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Multi-task deep learning for glaucoma detection from color fundus images
Pascal, L., Perdómo, O., Bost, X., Huet, B., Otálora, S., & Zuluaga, M. A. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-16262-8 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Green Federated Learning: A New Era of Green Aware AI
Thakur, D., Guzzo, A., Fortino, G., & Piccialli, F. (2025) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3718363 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Reconciling the contrasting narratives on the environmental impact of large language models
Ren, S., Tomlinson, B., Black, R. W., & Torrance, A. W. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-76682-6 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Training data influence analysis and estimation: a survey
Hammoudeh, Z., & Lowd, D. (2024) · Machine Learning · doi:10.1007/s10994-023-06495-7 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence in the NHS: Climate and Emissions✰,✰✰
Bloomfield, P. S., Clutton-Brock, P., Pencheon, E., Magnusson, J., & Karpathakis, K. (2021) · The Journal of Climate Change and Health · doi:10.1016/j.joclim.2021.100056 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Ecovisor: A Virtual Energy System for Carbon-Efficient Applications
Souza, A., Bashir, N., Murillo, J., Hanafy, W. A., Liang, Q., Irwin, D., & Shenoy, P. J. (2023) · International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) · doi:10.1145/3575693.3575709 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Lyu, W., Zhang, S., Chung, T., Sun, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100383 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“For example, they may strengthen formal policies that explicitly link AI initiatives to sustainability goals, potentially part-nering with tech providers that prioritize greener computing practices [107].”
An Outlook for Deep Learning in Ecosystem Science
Perry, G. L. W., Seidl, R., Bellvé, A. M., & Rammer, W. (2022) · Ecosystems · doi:10.1007/s10021-022-00789-y · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence for calculating and predicting building carbon emissions: a review
Hua, J., Wang, R., Hu, Y. C., Chen, Z., Chen, L., Osman, A. I., Farghali, M. R. F., Huang, L., Feng, J., Wang, J., et al. (2025) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-024-01799-z · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Chen, Z., Wu, M., Chan, A., Li, X., & Ong, Y.-S. (2023) · IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine · doi:10.1109/mci.2023.3245733 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence and Sustainability—A Review
Dhiman, R., Miteff, S., Wang, Y., Ma, S.-C., Amirikas, R., & Fabian, B. (2024) · Analytics · doi:10.3390/analytics3010008 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Deep transfer learning for image classification: a survey
Plested, J., Phiri, M., & Gedeon, T. (2022) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-026-11491-z · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Toward Sustainable Serverless Computing
Patros, P., Spillner, J., Papadopoulos, A. V., Varghese, B., RANA, O. F., & Dustdar, S. (2021) · IEEE Internet Computing · doi:10.1109/mic.2021.3093105 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Iqbal, A., Zhang, W., & Jahangir, S. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17030990 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Parameter-efficient deep probabilistic forecasting
Sprangers, O., Schelter, S., & de Rijke, M. (2022) · International Journal of Forecasting · doi:10.1016/j.ijforecast.2021.11.011 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Fusing CNNs and statistical indicators to improve image classification
Huertas Tato, J., Martín, A. G., Camacho, D., & Fiérrez Aguilar, J. (2021) · Hispana · doi:10.1016/j.inffus.2021.09.012 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Wang, Q., Sun, T., & Li, R. (2025) · Sustainable Development · doi:10.1002/sd.70388 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Review of Memristors for In‐Memory Computing and Spiking Neural Networks
Shooshtari, M., Serrano‐Gotarredona, T., & Linares‐Barranco, B. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202500806 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Neural Architecture Search and Hardware Accelerator Co-Search: A Survey
Sekanina, L. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3126685 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Lee, C., Zou, J., & Chen, P. (2025) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2025.108231 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Peykani, P., Ramezanlou, F., Tănăsescu, C. R., & Ghanidel, S. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15148103 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Recent Advances in Machine Learning Variant Effect Prediction Tools for Protein Engineering
Horne, J., & Shukla, D. (2022) · Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research · doi:10.1021/acs.iecr.1c04943 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Yoo, S. J. B. (2023) · Journal of Optical Communications and Networking · doi:10.1364/jocn.484577 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Memcapacitor Crossbar Array with Charge Trap NAND Flash Structure for Neuromorphic Computing
Hwang, S., Yu, J., Song, M. S., Hwang, H., & Kim, H. (2023) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202303817 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Towards Efficient Fine-Tuning of Pre-trained Code Models: An Experimental Study and Beyond
Shi, E., Wang, Y., Zhang, H., Du, L., Han, S., Zhang, D., & Sun, H. (2023) · ACM SIGSOFT International Symposium on Software Testing and Analysis (ISSTA) · doi:10.1145/3597926.3598036 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
On-chip phonon-magnon reservoir for neuromorphic computing
Yaremkevich, D. D., Scherbakov, A. V., Clerk, L. D., Kukhtaruk, S. M., Nadzeyka, A., Campion, R. P., Rushforth, A. W., Savel'ev, S. E., Balanov, A. G., & Bayer, M. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-43891-y · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Deep learning and satellite remote sensing for biodiversity monitoring and conservation
Pettorelli, N., Williams, J., Bühne, H. S. T., & Crowson, M. (2024) · Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1002/rse2.415 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Randomized Explainable Machine Learning Models for Efficient Medical Diagnosis
Muhammad, D., Ahmed, I., Ahmad, M. O., & Bendechache, M. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2024.3491593 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Maghsoudi, M., Mohammadi, N., & Bakhtiari, M. (2025) · Cleaner Environmental Systems · doi:10.1016/j.cesys.2025.100340 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Measuring the environmental impacts of artificial intelligence compute and applications
OECD (2022) · OECD digital economy papers · doi:10.1787/7babf571-en · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Photonic advantage of optical encoders
Huang, L., Tanguy, Q. A. A., Fröch, J. E., Mukherjee, S., Böhringer, K. F., & Majumdar, A. (2023) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2023-0579 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Cost-aware retraining for machine learning
Mahadevan, A., & Mathioudakis, M. (2024) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2024.111610 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Harnessing Artificial Intelligence
Durai, S., Manoharan, G., & Ashtikar, S. P. (2024) · Advances in finance, accounting, and economics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-2881-1.ch003 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Hullman, J. R., Kapoor, S., Nanayakkara, P., Gelman, A., & Narayanan, A. (2022) · Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI Ethics and Society · doi:10.1145/3514094.3534196 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
FedZero: Leveraging Renewable Excess Energy in Federated Learning
Wiesner, P., Khalili, R., Grinwald, D., Agrawal, P., Thamsen, L., & Kao, O. (2024) · ACM International Conference on Future Energy Systems (e-Energy) · doi:10.1145/3632775.3639589 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Embracing Green Computing in Molecular Phylogenetics
Kumar, S. (2022) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msac043 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
An exact mapping from ReLU networks to spiking neural networks
Stanojevic, A., Woźniak, S., Bellec, G., Cherubini, G., Pantazi, A., & Gerstner, W. (2023) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2023.09.011 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Balasubramanian, P., Nazari, S., Kholgh, D. K., Mahmoodi, A., Seby, J., & Kostakos, P. (2025) · Decision Analytics Journal · doi:10.1016/j.dajour.2025.100545 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Langtry, M., Wichitwechkarn, V., Ward, R. M., Zhuang, C., Kreitmair, M. J., Makasis, N., Conti, Z. X., & Choudhary, R. (2024) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114605 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Interspace Pruning: Using Adaptive Filter Representations to Improve Training of Sparse CNNs
Wimmer, P., Mehnert, J., & Condurache, A. P. (2022) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr52688.2022.01220 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Future Shock: Generative AI and the International AI Policy and Governance Crisis
Leslie, D., & Perini, A. M. (2024) · Harvard Data Science Review · doi:10.1162/99608f92.88b4cc98 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Frugal Optimization for Cost-related Hyperparameters
Wu, Q., Wang, C., & Huang, S. (2021) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v35i12.17239 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Abedin, M., Gong, N., Beckmann, K., Liehr, M., Saraf, I., der Straten, O. V., Ando, T., & Cady, N. C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42214-x · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Multimodal large language models for inclusive collaboration learning tasks
Lewis, A. (2022) · Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies: Student Research Workshop · doi:10.18653/v1/2022.naacl-srw.26 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Energy-Efficient Neural Network Inference with Microcavity Exciton Polaritons
Matuszewski, M., Opala, A., Mirek, R., Furman, M., Król, M., Tyszka, K., Liew, T. C. H., Ballarini, D., Sanvitto, D., Szczytko, J., et al. (2021) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.16.024045 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Arakawa, R., Yakura, H., & Goto, M. (2023) · Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3581133 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Dimensionality reduced training by pruning and freezing parts of a deep neural network: a survey
Wimmer, P., Mehnert, J., & Condurache, A. P. (2023) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-023-10489-1 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Reconfigurable versatile integrated photonic computing chip
Wang, Y., Liao, K., Zhang, K., Du, Z., Wang, Z., Ni, B., Xu, T., Feng, S., Yang, Y., Yang, Q., et al. (2025) · eLight · doi:10.1186/s43593-025-00098-6 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Martínez-Acosta, M., Vázquez‐Villegas, P., Mejía‐Manzano, L. A., Soto-Inzunza, G. V., Ruiz-Aguilar, K. M., Cuellar, L. K., Caratozzolo, P., & Membrillo‐Hernández, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Sustainable Cities · doi:10.3389/frsc.2023.1158464 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Constantinides, M., Bogucka, E. P., Quercia, D., Kallio, S., & Tahaei, M. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3686927 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hassan, M., Kabir, M. E., Jusoh, M., An, H. K., Negnevitsky, M., & Li, C. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3589319 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Large-scale photonic natural language processing
Valensise, C. M., Grecco, I., Pierangeli, D., & Conti, C. (2022) · Photonics Research · doi:10.1364/prj.472932 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Uniform upscaling techniques for eddy covariance FLUXes (UFLUX)
Zhu, S., Quaife, T. L., & Hill, T. C. (2024) · International Journal of Remote Sensing · doi:10.1080/01431161.2024.2312266 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Calderon-Ramirez, S., Yang, S., Elizondo, D. A., & Moemeni, A. (2022) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2022.108983 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Comparative studies of machine learning models for predicting higher heating values of biomass
Adeleke, A. A., Adedigba, A. P., Adeshina, S. A., Ikubanni, P. P., Lawal, M. S., Olosho, A. I., Yakubu, H. S., Ogedengbe, T. S., Nzerem, P., & Okolie, J. A. (2024) · Digital Chemical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.dche.2024.100159 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Roy, K., Wang, C., Roy, S., Raghunathan, A., Yang, K., & Sengupta, A. (2024) · Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s44287-024-00107-9 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Advancements in the application of large language models in urban studies: A systematic review
Xia, J., Tong, Y., & Long, Y. (2025) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2025.106142 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Tu, X., & Silva, B. D. C. E. (2025) · Digital Society · doi:10.1007/s44206-025-00163-0 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Inie, N., Falk, J., & Selvan, R. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3714227 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Wang, Q., Li, Y., Pata, U. K., & Li, R. (2025) · Geoscience Frontiers · doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2025.102072 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Evolution of Generative AI: Trends and Applications
Τρίγκα, Μ., & Dritsas, E. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3574660 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Ojöng, N. (2025) · Business Strategy and the Environment · doi:10.1002/bse.70031 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Where and how machine learning plays a role in climate finance research
Alonso-Robisco, A., Bas, J., Carbó, J. M., Fernández, A. D. J., & Marqués, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Sustainable Finance & Investment · doi:10.1080/20430795.2024.2370325 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Carbon Emission Quantification of Machine Learning: A Review
Hasan, S. M., Islam, T., Saifuzzaman, M., Ahmed, K. R., Huang, C.-H., & Shahid, A. R. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Computing · doi:10.1109/tsusc.2025.3578834 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
A Green Prospective for Learned Post-Processing in Sparse-View Tomographic Reconstruction
Morotti, E., Evangelista, D., & Piccolomini, E. L. (2021) · Journal of Imaging · doi:10.3390/jimaging7080139 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Putra, R. V. W., Hanif, M. A., & Shafique, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.937782 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Schäfer, M. S., & Hase, V. (2022) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.806 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Reuse, Reduce, Support: Design Principles for Green Data Mining
Schneider, J., Seidel, S., Basalla, M., & Brocke, J. V. (2022) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-022-00780-w · Cited by 24 · see citing works
- Authors
- Strubell, E., Ganesh, A., & McCallum, A.
- Affiliations
- Meta (United States) (US)
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence
- Published
- 2020-04-03
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 09
- Pages
- 13693-13696
- ISSN
- 2159-5399 (ISSN-L)
- 2374-3468
- OpenAlex
- W3037032032
- Cited by
- 774
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 143 · 2025: 307 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 96 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 68.55
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.aaai.org/ (unspecified)
- Locations
- Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (publishedVersion)
- AAAI Publications (The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI)) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Green IT and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Hardware and Architecture › Energy Efficiency in Computing
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Keywords
- carbon footprint of AI, large-scale neural networks, tensor processing units, environmental impact of machine learning, energy policy, natural language processing
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review