Artificial intelligence and work: a critical review of recent research from the social sciences

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Crowdwork and app-work are so far not widespread employment models.

“or crowdwork and app-work become widespread employment models (so far they are not)”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI works by processing large amounts of data to identify patterns.

“AI works by processing large amounts of data to identify patterns (Van Rijmenam 2019).”

• cites Van Rijmenam 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

AI development is stoked by an alliance of corporate and military interests: economic competition is one aspect of the battle for geopolitical hegemony, and military supremacy serves to ensure economic prosperity in competition with other nations.

“AI development is stoked by an alliance of corporate and military interests: economic competition is one aspect of the battle for geopolitical hegemony, and military supremacy serves to ensure economic prosperity in competition with other nations (Hwang 2018 for the geopolitics of controlling semiconductors manufacturing and AI patents).”

• cites Hwang 2018Not checked yet

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Previous waves of automation propelled by advances in information and communication technology were biased in favor of workers with higher skills, replacing lower skill workers and assisting workers with pre-existing complex skill sets.

“It is well established that previous waves of automation propelled by advances in information and communication technology were biased in favor of workers with higher skills, replacing lower skill workers and assisting workers with pre-existing complex skill sets (Acemoglu and Autor 2011, Göranzon and Josefson 2012, Buera et al. 2015, Mellacher and Scheuer 2020).”

• cites Acemoglu and Autor 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Göranzon and Josefson 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Buera et al. 2015Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

AI is introduced in workplaces for increased efficiency in some technical aspect of the work process, or explicitly to replace human workers and reduce labour costs.

“AI is introduced in workplaces for increased efficiency in some technical aspect of the work process, or it is introduced explicitly with the aim of replacing human workers and thereby reduce labour costs.”

May combine two claims.

AI has benefited from investment by companies hoping to cut labour and transaction costs, increase outputs, raise productivity, manage workforce, refine customer knowledge, and establish monopoly positions.

“AI has benefited from investment by companies that hope to find in it a new avenue for cutting costs, notably labour (Bessen et al. 2018) and transaction costs (Gurkaynak 2019; Lobel 2018), increasing outputs through rationalization of the production process (Acemoglu and Restrepo 2019), raising productivity (Brynjolfsson et al. 2019), managing the workforce in more efficient ways (Eubanks 2022),”

• cites Bessen et al. 2018Not checked yet

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• cites Gurkaynak 2019Not checked yet

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• cites Acemoglu and Restrepo 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Digital innovation, like all modern technology, has its own momentum.

“Digital innovation, like all modern technology, certainly has its own momentum, yet it is not sufficient to refer to advances in theoretical knowledge and technical improvements alone to explain the actual paths it travels and the forms it takes.”

May combine two claims.

AI did not emerge and is not being deployed in an economic or political void.

“This means that AI did not emerge and is not being deployed in an economic or a political void.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A 2020 McKinsey report evaluates the annual value increase of AI in the banking industry at $1 trillion, or 15.4% of sales.

“A 2020 McKinsey reports evaluates the annual value increase of AI in the banking industry at $1 trillion, or 15.4% of sales.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The history of automation to date demonstrates that new technologies so far have consistently created new jobs, both directly and indirectly.

“The history of automation to date demonstrates that new technologies so far have consistently created new jobs, both directly and indirectly (David 1990).”

• cites David 1990Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The creation of new tasks is a key component of the labour economists' arguments against universal technological unemployment.

“The creation of new tasks is a key component of the labour economists' arguments against universal technological unemployment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Comparable innovation effects are expected in other industries where the innovation process is inseparable from the research process.

“Comparable innovation effects are expected in other industries where the innovation process is inseparable from the research process (Cockburn et al. 2019).”

• cites Cockburn et al. 2019Not checked yet

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Frey and Osborne predict that 47% of all jobs within the U.S. are at risk of technological replacement within two decades.

“The two business scholars famously predict that 47% of all jobs within the U.S. are at risk of technological replacement within two decades.”

• cites Frey and Osborne 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ernst et al. (2019) conclude that AI is likely to play out in ways different from previous waves, by increasing productivity and potentially creating more inclusive growth, provided correct educational measures are taken in countries that are part of globalised labour chains.

“In an important review of the literature, which combines a historical approach with a task-focused one, Ernst et al. (2019) conclude that AI in fact is likely to play out in ways different from previous waves, by increasing productivity and potentially creating more inclusive growth, provided correct educational measures are taken in countries that are part of globalised labour chains.”

• cites Ernst et al. 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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A 2018 World Economic Forum study predicts that automation will result in a net increase of 58 million jobs, with 133 million new roles created and 75 million current workers displaced.

“A 2018 study by the World Economic Forum (2018) predicts that automation will result in a net increase of 58 million jobs, with a total 133 million new roles created and 75 million current workers displaced.”

• cites World Economic Forum 2018Not checked yet

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AI is viewed by many business experts as a technology that can spur innovation and provide competitive advantage.

“AI is viewed by many business experts as a technology that can spur innovation and provide competitive advantage (Davenport 2018; Polak et al. 2020 for the finance sector).”

• cites Davenport 2018Not checked yet

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• cites Polak et al. 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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Frey and Osborne's predictions were refuted by Arntz et al. (2016), who found much lower outcomes, around 9% across the OECD, with a high of 12% in Austria and as low as 6% in South Korea.

“Using this approach, Frey and Osborne's earth-shaking predictions on the impact of AI was refuted by Arntz et al. (2016).”

• Also stated in: § 3.2.2 Optimistic scenarios · plain

  “With this new method, they found evidence for much lower outcomes, around 9% across the OECD (a high of 12% in Austria) and as low as 6% in South Korea.”

• cites Arntz et al. 2016Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another trend widely anticipated is the polarisation of labour markets, similar to what occurred in the previous wave of automation.

“Beside displacement, another trend widely anticipated is the polarisation of labour markets (Brito 2020;Korinek and Stiglitz 2019), similar to what occurred in the previous wave of automation”

• cites Brito 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Korinek and Stiglitz 2019Not checked yet

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Bowles claims that 54% of jobs in the EU and USA were under threat in the same time span.

“Using a similar approach, Bowles arrived at an even higher figure, claiming that 54% of jobs in the EU and USA were under threat in the same time span (Bowles 2014).”

• cites Bowles 2014Not checked yet

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A key Manpower survey in 2017 showed that managers in some countries expected to substitute workers for machines, while others expected AI to increase hiring; overall the survey demonstrated optimism.

“A key Manpower survey in 2017 (ManpowerGroup 2017) provided interesting figures, with managers in some countries expecting to substitute workers for machines, whilst others expected AI to increase hiring.Overall, the survey demonstrated optimism (also ServiceNow 2017).”

• cites ManpowerGroup 2017Not checked yet

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Gillham et al. estimate that global GDP would increase by 14% by 2030, an equivalent of up to $15.7 trillion.

“Gillham et al. (2018) in a PWC report estimate that global GDP would increase by 14% by 2030, an equivalent of up to $15.7 trillion.”

• cites Gillham et al. 2018Not checked yet

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Felten et al. developed a model for how computerisation and specific AI functions can affect activities making up occupations, and they land on more measured conclusions.

“In another noteworthy approach, Princeton computer expert Edward Felten and his colleagues developed a model for how computerisation and specific AI functions can affect the activities making up particular occupations.They also land on more measured conclusions (Felten et al. 2018(Felten et al. , 2019(Felten et al. , 2021)).”

• cites Felten et al. 2018Not checked yet

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• cites Felten et al. 2019Not checked yet

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• cites Felten et al. 2021Not checked yet

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Human skills can be complemented rather than copied by automated processes, with machines taking charge of routine aspects of the job.

“Finally, human skills can be complemented rather than copied by automated processes, with machines taking charge of the routine aspects of the job (Autor 2014;Brooks et al. 2020;Alarie et al. 2018;Ekbia and Nardi 2017).”

• cites Autor 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Brooks et al. 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Alarie et al. 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Many economists and technology experts contend that AI will substitute for human work at such a scale that social-economic organisations will be shaken to the ground.

“Many economists and technology experts contend that AI will substitute for human work at such a scale that socialeconomic organisations will be shaken to the ground as a result.”

• cites Danaher 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Purdy and Daugherty estimate that AI has the potential to increase labor productivity across the board by up to 40% in 2035.

“Purdy and Daugherty in a 2016 Accenture report (Accenture 2016) estimate that AI has the potential to increase labor productivity across the board by up to 40% in 2035.”

• cites Accenture 2016Not checked yet

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Many economists, historians, business scholars and executives reject pessimistic visions of massive technological unemployment.

“Many economists, historians, business scholars and executives reject such pessimistic visions of massive technological unemployment (Moghaddam et al. 2020).”

• cites Moghaddam et al. 2020Not checked yet

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Another macro-economic argument highlighted by Autor (2015) is captured in the image of the O-ring.

“Another macro-economic argument highlighted by Autor (2015) is captured in the image of the O-ring.”

• cites Autor 2015Not checked yet

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Bughin (2020) concludes that labor redistribution will occur.

“Via a questionnaire targeting 3000 companies, Bughin (2020) concludes that labor redistribution will occur.”

• cites Bughin 2020Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The ILO has published many reports on the future of work, which tend to be cautiously optimistic.

“The ILO has published many reports on the future of work, which tend to be cautiously optimistic (for instance ILO 2018).”

• cites ILO 2018Not checked yet

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In the pharmaceutical industry, AI is already used to spur innovation in mapping rare diseases, predicting pharmaceutical properties, and identifying new therapeutic uses.

“In the pharmaceutical industry, AI is already used to spur innovation in a number of ways: for instance, to cite just three platforms, by mapping rare diseases (BERG platform); predicting the pharmaceutical properties of small-molecule candidates for drug development (XtalPi's ID4 platform); or identifying new therapeutic uses for already validated products (BioXel).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Nedelkoska and Quintini estimate that 14% of jobs are highly automatable (probability over 70%) and 32% have a risk between 50 and 70%.

“In a multi-country approach covering 32 nations, Nedelkoska and Quintini (2018) estimate that 14% of jobs are highly automatable (probability of automation over 70%), 32% have a risk of between 50 and 70%.”

• cites Nedelkoska and Quintini 2018Not checked yet

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Acemoglu and Restrepo summarise four logics associated with the productivity effect: (1) rise in demand for labor follows from economic growth triggered by innovation; (2) demand for labour can increase because automation triggers increased demand for capital; (3) automation can deepen existing automation, increasing productivity without substituting labour; (4) AI automation creates new tasks.

“In their contribution to The Economics of Artificial Intelligence (2017) Acemoglu and Restrepo summarise in plain terms the complex logics associated with the productivity effect.First, as noted, there is a rise in the demand for labor that follows automatically from economic growth triggered by innovation.In theory the demand for labour can be witnessed even in sectors where automation occurred.”

• Also stated in: § 3.2.2 Optimistic scenarios · plain

  “Second, demand for labour can increase because automation triggers increased demand for capital.Third, automation can deepen existing automation, which increases productivity without substituting labour (since it is machines that are improved).And fourthly, and most importantly, AI automation creates new tasks.”

• cites Acemoglu and Restrepo 2017Not checked yet

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Productivity has been stagnant in developed economies over the past seventy years, with growth per decade decreasing from 2.3% in the 1950s to 1.8% in the 2010s.

“It is a well-known fact that productivity has been stagnant in developed economies over the past seventy years, with growth per decade decreasing from 2.3% in the 1950s, to 1.8% in the 2010s (Gries and Naudé 2018).”

• cites Gries and Naudé 2018Not checked yet

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New technology creates entirely new jobs.

“New technology creates entirely new jobs (Wilson et al. 2017).”

• cites Wilson et al. 2017Not checked yet

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A major use of technology is to bypass labour forces when they are well organized and push back effectively against capital imperatives.

“A major use of technology is to bypass labour forces when they are well organized and push back effectively against capital imperatives (Mueller 2021).”

• cites Mueller 2021Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

At the macro-level, the factors involved in economic reality across different contexts are so numerous and variable that significant unpredictability in how AI might complement rather than replace human work should be assumed.

“At the macro-level, the factors involved in economic reality across different context are so numerous and variable, one would assume significant unpredictability in how AI might complement rather than replace human work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On some accounts, this multiplier effect might even be felt in manufacturing industries servicing automated factories.

“On some accounts, this effect might even be felt in manufacturing industries servicing automated factories (Goos et al. 2015).”

• cites Goos et al. 2015Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Strict property rules mean that technological innovation is exclusively owned, put to use, and the outcomes of its productivity-raising potentials captured, by private owners.

“Strict property rules mean that technological innovation is exclusively owned, put to use, and the outcomes of its productivity-raising potentials captured, by private owners.”

• cites Nieswandt 2021Not checked yet

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In a world prone to climate crisis, the environmental impact of AI might well constrain its deployment, at least if sustainability becomes a serious parameter in economic activity.

“Similarly, in a world prone to climate crisis, the environmental impact of AI (Corbett 2018;Dhar 2020;Lucivero 2020;Strubell et al. 2020; van Wynsberghe 2021) might well constrain its deployment, at least if sustainability becomes a serious parameter in economic activity (Nishant et al. 2020 for a contrary optimistic view).”

• cites Corbett 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Dhar 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Lucivero 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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Methods that rely on case studies only inform on a particular job or occupation at a particular time and place, and there are methodological risks in generalising from particular cases.

“Similarly, methods that rely on case studies only inform on a particular job or occupation at a particular time and place, and there are methodological risks in generalising from particular cases.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The capitalist imperative means that the deployment of technologies in a capitalist context is guided exclusively by the search for profit.

“The capitalist imperative means that the deployment of technologies in a capitalist context is guided exclusively by the search for profit.”

• cites Nieswandt 2021Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The absence of technological unemployment is nothing to celebrate because it coincides with higher levels of precariousness, underemployment and exploitation.

“The absence of technological unemployment is in itself nothing to celebrate though, as it coincides with higher levels of precariousness, underemployment and exploitation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Even in the last decade, productivity growth slowed significantly.

“Even in the last decade, productivity growth slowed significantly (Brynjolfsson et al. 2019).”

• cites Brynjolfsson et al. 2019Not checked yet

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Surplus value can be extracted just as well from human workers.

“Surplus value can be extracted just as well from human workers (Dinerstein 2021).”

• cites Dinerstein 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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Private property in the means of production and the profit motive make it unlikely that AI-based automation will lead to massive job losses.

“Drawing on Cohen's classical reconstruction of historical materialism (2000), Barbara Nieswandt (2021) shows that private property in the means of production and the profit motive make it unlikely that AI-based automation will lead to massive job losses.”

• cites Nieswandt 2021Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Many jobs are actually more difficult to perform than is often assumed.

“This is true not only for technical reasons, because many jobs are actually more difficult to perform than is often assumed, but also for economic ones: as De Stefano makes the case (2020), assuming that automation necessarily increases productivity might in some cases be based on an overly narrow view of the tasks automated and on erroneous measures of efficiency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The models appear to describe mathematically consistent worlds, but it is less clear that they describe our messy world or the future.

“The models appear to describe mathematically consistent worlds, but it is less clear that they describe our messy one, let alone what it might be in the future.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Overcapacity in manufacturing and agriculture leads to an exodus of workers towards service and care sectors, where productivity is achieved through wage suppression and depreciation of working conditions.

“Overcapacity in manufacturing and agriculture leads to an exodus of workers towards service and care sectors, where productivity is achieved through wage suppression and depreciation of working conditions.”

• cites Benanav 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Smith 2020Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The impact of technology on employment is not deterministic; the deployment of new technologies is contingent upon a multitude of factors, including public policy, firm strategy and geography.

“an important review by Clifton et al. (2020, 11) highlights that, “the impact of technology on employment is not deterministic-the deployment of these new technologies is contingent upon a multitude of factors, including public policy, firm strategy and geography, among others.””

• cites Clifton et al. 2020Not checked yet

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Methods used to predict labour-market trajectories deliver substantial lessons for understanding past trends but are far less convincing for future ones.

“For the external observer, these methods seem to deliver substantial lessons for understanding past trends, but are far less convincing when it comes to future ones.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The frequency with which mathematical models are revised, with new parameters and axiomatic hypotheses in each new paper, creates a gap between the assurance of conclusions stated in plain English and the ability of the models to capture reality.

“The frequency with which the mathematical models are revised, with new parameters and axiomatic hypotheses being introduced in each new paper, gives the non-spe-cialist the sense that there is a gap between the assurance with which conclusions are stated in plain English and the ability of the models to capture reality, notably given the number of idealizing assumptions underpinning the analyses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Labour's current deficiency in power compared to capital's means that automation is bounded.

“Labour's current deficiency in power compared to capital's means that automation is “bounded”.”

• cites Fleming 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

AI needs data regarding workers' skill, time use, and behavior, which in turn makes worker monitoring a necessity.

“AI needs data regarding workers' skill, time use, and behavior, which in turn makes worker monitoring a necessity.”

May combine two claims.

These new occupations come with low wages, precarious working conditions and tenure, and uncertain hours.

“These new occupations come with low wages, precarious working conditions and tenure and uncertain hours.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Given the other tools capitalists possess to ensure the exploitation of workers, the search for profit is better served by increasing output than job churn, so there is no incentive to shed jobs.

“Given the other tools capitalists possess to ensure the exploitation of workers, the search for profit is better served by increasing output than job churn, which means that there is no incentive to shed jobs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When human labour is relatively cheap, there is no incentive for capital to invest and deploy expensive technologies.

“When human labour is relatively cheap, there is no incentive for capital to invest and deploy expensive technologies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Automation triggers employment in new service sectors, even a return to older forms of dependent labour.

“This triggers employment in new service sectors, even a return to older forms of dependent labour.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In the O-ring model, failure of any one step in the chain of production leads the entire production process to fail; improvements in reliability of any link increase the value of improvements in all others.

“In the O-ring model, failure of any one step in the chain of production leads the entire production process to fail.Conversely, improvements in the reliability of any given link increase the value of improvements in all of the others.”

• cites Kremer 1993Not checked yet

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If needs, tasks and jobs will be new, it is difficult to guess what they might be, let alone capture them in models premised on existing job profiles and descriptions of tasks in currently existing occupations.

“By definition, the lay reader is tempted to say, if needs, tasks and jobs will be new, it seems difficult to guess what they might be, let alone capture them in models premised on existing job profiles, and on the descriptions of the tasks entailed in currently existing occupations (see the 2018 ILO literature review for precisely this point; also Arntz et al. 2019).”

• cites ILO 2018Not checked yet

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• cites Arntz et al. 2019Not checked yet

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Marx-inspired analyses of technological unemployment are supported by historians who contradict optimistic readings like Mokyr's and emphasise the slowing down of innovation under financial capitalism, where profit maximisation occurs through speculation rather than changes in industrial paradigms.

“These Marx-inspired analyses of technological unemployment are supported by the analyses of historians who directly contradict optimistic readings like Mokyr's, and emphasise the slowing down of innovation under financial capitalism, where profit maximisation occurs through speculation rather than changes in industrial paradigms (Gordon 2014(Gordon , 2015)).”

• cites Gordon 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Gordon 2015 sourceNot checked yet

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Algorithmic management raises issues of privacy, not just at the workplace but also at home, notably following the pandemic-induced shift to home-based working.

“Surveillance and control: algorithmic management raises obvious issues of privacy (Bhave et al. 2020;Ebert et al. 2021;Fukumura et al. 2021;Tsamados et al. 2022), not just at the workplace, but also at home, notably following the pandemic-induced shift to home-based working (Collins 2020).”

• cites Bhave et al. 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Ebert et al. 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Collins 2020Not checked yet

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AI gathers and processes data in ways that are often hidden from workers, leading to decisions made in ways which humans cannot, or at least cannot quickly or efficiently, process.

“AI also gathers and processes data in ways that are often hidden from workers, leading to decisions made in ways which humans cannot, or at least cannot quickly or efficiently, process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The power of AI for gathering and processing vast amounts of data can be harnessed in traditional work settings where employees are hired under work arrangements and labour contracts predating AI automation.

“The power of AI for gathering and processing vast amounts of data can be harnessed in traditional work settings where employees are hired under work arrangements and labour contracts predating AI automation.”

May combine two claims.

What can in some conditions amount to an increase in autonomy can also mean a lack of training, notably around OHS issues.

“But what can in some conditions amount to an increase in autonomy can also mean a lack of training, notably around OHS issues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The computational power of AI allows it to function not just as a new industrial tool within pre-existing work processes, but also as the centerpiece of a new business model that radically alters modes of working, conditions of employment, and interactions of workers with management and customers.

“However, the computational power of AI allows it to function not just as a new industrial tool within pre-existing work processes.It also becomes the centerpiece of a new business model that radically alters modes of working, as well as the conditions of employment and the interactions of workers with management and customers.”

May combine two claims.

Other battles are about the right to privacy of workers and the development of regulatory frameworks to give an ethical frame to AI development.

“Other battles are about the right to privacy of workers (De Stefano 2020 for Europe) and the development of regulatory frameworks to give an ethical frame to AI development (Salento 2018).”

• cites De Stefano 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Salento 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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Vallas and Schor conclude that power asymmetry rather than horizontal democracy has so far been the experience of workers.

“Vallas and Schor reference a large number of studies on working conditions for appworkers (see the more recent Moore and Woodstock 2021), and conclude that power asymmetry rather than horizontal democracy has so far been the experience of workers.”

• cites Vallas and Schor 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Moore and Woodstock 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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Workers are managed and directed through reasons they are not provided with, preventing collaborative or even consultative leadership styles and substituting a directive or even coercive one in its place.

“Workers are managed and directed through reasons they are not provided with, preventing collaborative or even consultative leadership styles, substituting a directive or even coercive one in its place (Dunphy and Stace 1993).”

• cites Dunphy and Stace 1993 sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Many platform workers use the work to complement income, and precarisation through platform work is far from a universal trend.

“Vallas and Schor reject an assumed view of platform workers that is overly homogeneous.Many platform workers in fact use the work to complement income, precarisation through platform is far from a universal trend.”

• cites Vallas and Schor 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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Surveillance can lead to increased pressure on workers to perform, taking away moments of respite, as is well documented in warehouse and platform work.

“Surveillance can lead to increased pressure on workers to perform, taking away moments of respite, as is well documented in warehouse (Hanley and Hubbard 2020) and platform work (Newlands 2021a, b).”

• cites Hanley and Hubbard 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Newlands 2021a, bNot checked yet

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A lot of crowdwork and gigwork is highly flexible, has non-regular hours, which can have a negative impact on work-life balance and affect physical and mental health and personal relations.

“A lot of crowdwork and gigwork is highly flexible, has non-regular hours, which can have a negative impact on work-life balance and affect physical and mental health and personal relations as a result (Muntaner 2018;Allan et al. 2021).”

• cites Muntaner 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Allan et al. 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The immense gap between ideal-scenario policy propositions and economic and political reality points to the need for another kind of approach, one that focuses on what makes AI developments doubtful, at least in the short term.

“Ideal-scenario policy recommendations might have their usefulness, but the immense gap between the propositions and economic and political reality points to the need for another kind of approach, one that focuses precisely on what makes these developments of AI doubtful, at least in the short term.”

May combine two claims.

Privacy infringements can occur at all stages of the data cycle: at the time of collection, in the analysis of the data, in the use of the data, and when data ought to be erased.

“Privacy infringements can occur at all stages of the data cycle: at the time of collection, in the analysis of the data, in the use of the data, and when data ought to be erased.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Management by AI is by definition about removing the human element from the decision-making process.

“Management by AI is by definition about removing the human element from the decision-making process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Service work for an Uber driver is far less scripted than service work in more traditional settings.

“Service work for an Uber driver for instance is far less scripted than service work in more traditional settings.”

May combine two claims.

The company appears to be absolved of its responsibilities, removing existing avenues through which workers understand and demand these responsibilities are met.

“The company appears to be absolved of its responsibilities, removing existing avenues through which workers understand and demand these responsibilities are met.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Susskind's proposal is detailed and seems consistent, but it is utterly unrealistic in current ideological and geopolitical conditions, particularly in the few countries spearheading AI innovation.

“As a blueprint, Susskind's proposal is detailed and seems consistent, but it is utterly unrealistic in current ideological and geopolitical conditions, particularly in the few countries spearheading AI innovation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Flexible hours might also be viewed as increased autonomy.

“Flexible hours might also be viewed as increased autonomy.”

May combine two claims.

If AI deployment causes significant technological unemployment, wealth polarisation, or widespread crowdwork and app-work, bringing further precariousness in employment conditions, then the impact on current social organisations will be significant.

“If, as a result of AI deployment in work, technological unemployment does occur at a significant scale, or wealth polarisation, or crowdwork and app-work become widespread employment models (so far they are not), bringing further precariousness in employment conditions, then the impact on current social organisations will be significant (Acemoglu and Restrepo 2020b).”

• cites Acemoglu and Restrepo 2020bNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Breaches of privacy touch on a fundamental human right and also represent a strong leverage tool for managers, with which they can exert control and undermine autonomy.

“Breaches of privacy touch on a fundamental human right, but they also represent a strong leverage tool for managers, with which they can exert control and undermine autonomy (Shapiro 2018).”

• cites Shapiro 2018 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Different types of platform workers operate under different conditions and have vastly different experiences.

“Different types of workers operate under different conditions and have vastly different experiences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Current social systems continue to be organised on the basis of full-time employment in jobs attracting good wages as the condition for the complete enjoyment of social and economic rights, including full health and pension coverage.

“This is because current social systems continue to be organised on the basis of full-time employment in jobs attracting good wages as the condition for the complete enjoyment of social and economic rights, including full health and pension coverage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The view of platforms as a new form of Weberian iron cage underestimates the capacity of platform workers to evade control, resist and organise.

“However, this view of platforms underestimates the capacity of platform workers to evade control, resist and organise.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

What is at stake is the clash between the two imperatives noted at the outset and the plausibility of a 'good AI', or 'AI for good'.

“What is at stake is the clash between the two imperatives noted at the outset and the plausibility of a “good AI”, or “AI for good”.”

May combine two claims.

The heterogeneity of the workforce exists also in the locations of workers, who are scattered around regions and even around the world, creating isolation and preventing organisation for collective action.

“The heterogeneity of the workforce exists also in the locations of the workers, who are scattered around regions, and even around the world.This creates isolation and again prevents organisation for collective action.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Micro-tasking crowdwork goes to the heart of AI.

“One aspect of crowdwork that is worth highlighting is micro-tasking crowdwork that goes to the heart of AI.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It is impossible to make overly general statements about platform work.

“A key lesson from the sociology of work perspective is that it is impossible to make overly general statements about platform work (Schor et al. 2020).”

• cites Schor et al. 2020 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

One feature of the relaxation of management control is the heterogeneity of the workforce, which acts against organisation.

“One feature of this relaxation of management control, is the heterogeneity of the workforce this produces, which acts against organisation.”

May combine two claims.

One major battle concerns the legal status of gig workers, whether platforms can divest themselves of all responsibilities regarding the people they employ.

“One major battle concerns the legal status of gig workers, whether platforms can divest themselves of all responsibilities regarding the people they employ.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

AI can also complement work in some professions, notably by taking away the routine aspects of the job, allowing workers to focus on the more creative or rewarding parts of the work.

“By the same token, however, AI can also complement work in some professions, notably by taking away the routine aspects of the job.Workers then focus on the more creative, or rewarding parts of the work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Given the rhetoric used by the main actors, it is difficult to see ethical considerations having much sway for some of the possible extensions of AI.

“Given the rhetoric used by the main actors, it is difficult to see ethical considerations having much sway for some of the possible extensions of AI.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

One might be skeptical of the willingness of states to enforce principles of 'good AI' when they are engaged in high stakes contests over geopolitical hegemony.

“Regarding the nationalist imperative, one might be skeptical of the willingness of states to enforce principles of “good AI” when they are engaged in high stakes contests over geopolitical hegemony.”

May combine two claims.

AI does not by itself determine 'good' nor 'bad' outcomes for the world of work; rather, what matters is the kind of world in which AI will be developed and deployed.

“What these extraneous, economic and political, parameters indicate is that AI does not by itself determine 'good' nor 'bad' outcomes for the world of work.Rather, what matters is the kind of world in which AI will be developed and deployed.”