Visual and Theoretical Analyses of the Early Stage of Frost Formation on Cold Surfaces
Abstract
Meso-scale visual observations were conducted to investigate the process of frost formation on both bare and hydrophobic coated copper surfaces, which had contact angles of 56° and 110°. The experiments were carried out for −20−0°C surface temperatures, 19−22°C ambient air temperatures, and 15−85% relative humidities. The tests showed that the frost formation on cold surfaces was not a simple process of transition from steam directly to frost, but actually followed five steps: the formation of condensate droplets, droplet growth including coalescence of the supercooled droplets, freezing of the droplets, formation of initial frost crystals on the frozen droplets, and growth of frost crystals accompanied by collapse of some of the crystals. Compared to the bare copper surface, the hydrophobic surface had a sparser distribution of condensate droplets but larger droplet sizes, delayed droplet freezing and frost formation, and a smaller frost height, all of which support the observation that the hydrophobic surface retards frost formation and growth. The frosting phenomenon was also analyzed theoretically. The initial vapor condensation before frosting was explained based on the free energies for nucleation. For condensation of steam on cold surfaces below 0°C, the Gibbs free energy barrier for water nuclei is smaller than that for ice nuclei, so condensate droplets appear before frost on cold surfaces. Further, since the hydrophobic surface has a higher Gibbs free energy barrier for nucleation than the bare surface, the droplets form more readily on the bare surface.
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Accurate simulations of frosting on fin-and-tube heat exchanger surfaces are necessary for designing heat exchangers with frosting.
“Previous experimental and theoretical investigations of frosting [1-5] have shown that accurate simulations of frosting on fin-and-tube heat exchanger surfaces are necessary for designing heat exchangers with frosting.”
From Numerical Simulation of Frosting on Fin-and-Tube Heat Exchanger Surfaces (2017) · cites this paper as [3]
Wu et al. [5] assumed that the driving force for water vapor condensation into ice was the difference between water vapor partial pressure in the humid air and water vapor saturation pressure corresponding to the frost surface temperature, related to vapor concentration difference [3,5,7].
“They assumed that the driving force for the water vapor condensation into ice was the difference between the water vapor partial pressure in the humid air and the water vapor saturation pressure corresponding to the frost surface temperature, which was related to the vapor concentration difference [3,5,7].”
From Numerical Simulation of Frosting on Fin-and-Tube Heat Exchanger Surfaces (2017) · cites this paper as [3]
The mass transfer driving force from water vapor to ice is the difference between water vapor partial pressure in the humid air (a function of water vapor concentration) and water vapor saturation pressure corresponding to the frost surface temperature [3,7].
“The mass transfer driving force from the water vapor to the ice is the difference between the water vapor partial pressure in the humid air which is a function of water vapor concentration and the water vapor saturation pressure corresponding to the frost surface temperature [3,7].”
From Numerical Simulation of Frosting on Fin-and-Tube Heat Exchanger Surfaces (2017) · cites this paper as [3]
During the FLG period, frost branches formed at the top of the ice crystals, grew in three dimensions, and connected to neighboring frost branches, forming a flat frost layer.
“The entire process of the frost branch formation was referred to as the FLG period when frost branches would form at the top of the ice crystals. These frost branches grew in three dimensions and connected to the neighboring frost branches, thus forming a flat frost layer [9,10].”
From Review on the measurement and calculation of frost characteristics (2018) · cites this paper as [10]
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- Authors
- Wu, X., Dai, W., Shan, X., Wang, W., & Tang, L.
- Affiliations
- Tsinghua University (CN)
- Venue
- Journal of Enhanced Heat Transfer
- Publisher
- Begell House
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 257-268
- ISSN
- 1026-5511 (ISSN-L)
- 1065-5131
- OpenAlex
- W2163435766
- Cited by
- 63
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 2 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 1.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Enhanced heat transfer/Journal of enhanced heat transfer (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Icing and De-icing Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Surfaces, Coatings and Films › Surface Modification and Superhydrophobicity
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › nanoparticles nucleation surface interactions
- Keywords
- frost formation, hydrophobic surfaces, copper surfaces, contact angle, condensate droplets, droplet coalescence, droplet freezing, vapor condensation, nucleation free energy, ice nuclei, supercooled water droplets, relative humidity, frost protection
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