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Promoting Cultural Responsivity and Student Engagement Through Double Check Coaching of Classroom Teachers: An Efficacy Study
Open accessAbstract
This article presents findings from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) testing the impact of a novel coaching approach utilized as one element of the Double Check cultural responsivity and student engagement model. The RCT included 158 elementary and middle school teachers randomized to receive coaching or serve as comparisons; all participating teachers were exposed to school-wide professional development activities. Pre–post nonexperimental comparisons indicated improvements in self-reported culturally responsive behavior management and self-efficacy for teachers in both conditions following professional development exposure. With regard to the experimental findings, trained observers recorded significantly more proactive behavior management and anticipation of student problems by teachers, higher student cooperation, less student noncooperation, and fewer disruptive behaviors in classrooms led by coached teachers relative to comparison teachers. Taken together, the findings suggest the potential promise of coaching combined with school-wide professional development for improving classroom management practices and possibly reducing office discipline referrals among Black students.
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“coaching as a PD strategy was either used in rather lengthy trajectories of at least six months (e.g., Bradshaw et al., 2018;Daniel & Pray, 2017;Leeman & Van Koeven, 2019) or in short but intensive full-time immersion experiences (i.e., He et al., 2017;Pence & Macgillivray, 2008).”
From Increasing teachers’ intercultural competences in teacher preparation programs and through professional development: A review (2021) · cites this paper as Bradshaw et al., 2018
In the citing paper
“These studies demonstrated how such PD efforts can improve the use of home language in the classroom (i.e., Daniel & Pray, 2017;Spies et al., 2017) or lead to higher teacher responsiveness and less disciplinary referrals of black children (i.e., Bradshaw et al., 2018).”
From Increasing teachers’ intercultural competences in teacher preparation programs and through professional development: A review (2021) · cites this paper as Bradshaw et al., 2018
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“Outside of single-case studies, a few researchers have examined culturally responsive behavior interventions using experimental quantitative designs (Bradshaw et al., 2018; McIntosh et al., 2021; Smith et al., 2014), and two more studies were carried out using quasi-experimental, pre-post…”
Pullmann, M. D., Gaias, L. M., Duong, M. T., Gill, T. L., Curry, C., Cicchetti, C., Raviv, T., Kiche, S. W., & Cook, C. R. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22651 · Cited by 7
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“To date, most studies related to CRP have explored teachers ’ comfort and self-ef fi cacy in the classroom and teacher preparation programs (TPP; Bradshaw et al., 2018; Howard, 2016; Yang & Montgomery, 2011).”
Beahm, L. A., Smith, L. H., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2024) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2024.104522 · Cited by 4
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InfluentialSelf-citationSupporting Cultural Responsiveness in the Classroom: An Exploratory Study of Teacher Profiles
Knox, J. L., Lawson, T. K., Goodwin, A. K. B., Golden, A. R., Arch, D. A. N., & Fallon, L. M. (2025) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2024.2449340 · Cited by 5
“Cultural responsiveness increases students’ academic self-efficacy, school belonging, and school membership (Bottiani et al., 2020; Chun & Dickson, 2011; Garcia & Chun, 2016; Lawson, 2024) while contributing to decreases in exclusionary discipline practices (Bradshaw et al., 2018).”
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Self-citationLegette, K. B., Anyon, Y., Melero, A., & Trujillo, M. (2025) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/00420859251382197 · Cited by 2
“In one of the few randomized controlled trials in our review, Bradshaw et al. (2018) examined an approach that involved a combination of culturally responsive instruction with schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports.”
Interventions to Address Racism in Disciplinary Actions in K-12 Schools: A Systematic Review
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“…et al., 2024; McIntosh et al., 2021a); two articles had an intervention that did not mitigate racial disparities but was culturally relevant (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Debnam et al., 2024); six articles had an intervention that reduced racial disparities but was not culturally relevant (Borman…”
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“…coaches is also consistent with researchers who found that professional learning, combined with coaching, increases teachers’ sense of efficacy (Bradshaw et al., 2018) and is necessary for fostering consistent engagement and their relationship with their principals (Belay, Melese, & Seifu,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMeyer, N., Stevens, A., Scott, T. M., & Parish, M. (2023) · Kentucky Teacher Education Journal The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Kentucky Council for Exceptional Children · doi:10.61611/2995-5904.1045 · Cited by 2
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McDaniel, S. C., Cohen, D., Salle, T. P. L., & Nese, R. N. T. (2021) · Beyond Behavior · doi:10.1177/10742956211024168 · Cited by 2
“The Double Check Model (Bradshaw et al., 2018) incorporates elements of culturally responsive teaching and classroom management through professional development and coaching activities.”
BackgroundReexamining the Evidence of Validity for Office Discipline Referrals
Stage, S. A. (2022) · International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches · doi:10.29034/ijmra.v14n3a2 · Cited by 2
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Gilles, J. K.-J., Hernández, G. L., Cabral, P., Nguyen, S., & Suárez‐Orozco, C. (2021) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/00420859211051378 · Cited by 1
“The threshold for establishing reliability between coders was set at percent observed agreement of 80% or greater, which aligns with widely accepted fi eld standards for observational assessments (Bradshaw et al., 2018).”
MethodGarner, P. W., Legette, K. B., & Shadur, J. M. (2024) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23197 · Cited by 5
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“Another professional development program called Double Check was tested to determine the impact of the Classroom Check-Up model on equitable discipline practices (Bradshaw et al., 2018).”
InfluentialCappella, E., DeShazer, M., Park, C., Neal, J. W., Exner‐Cortens, D., & Owens, J. S. (2025) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12811 · Cited by 1
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Kunemund, R. L., Day, J., Coleman, O. F., Granger, K. L., Waterfield, D. A., McClain, S. S., McDonald, S. D., Powell, C., & Kennedy, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251349399 · Cited by 1
“Researchers have shown PD provided without the bene fi t of additional coaching and feedback does not signi fi cantly impact teacher or student outcomes (Bradshaw et al., 2018).”
Chung, E., Bottiani, J. H., Francis, M. K., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2025) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.70032 · Cited by 2
Self-citationParents’ Perspectives of Culturally Responsive Practices for Teachers and School Administrators
Aguayo, D., Santiago, R. T., Boddie, D., McCree, N., Gunasekaran, S. D., Venkat, S., Reinke, W. M., & Herman, K. C. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03118-8 · Cited by 1
“Double Check has enhanced teachers ’ CRPs, contributing to a reduction in of fi ce discipline referrals for Black students (Bradshaw et al., 2018).”
Self-citationDistrict-Level PBIS: Implementation Logic and Current Research Trends
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Herman, K. C., Dong, N., Reinke, W. M., Aguayo, D., Selders, K. J., & McCree, N. (2025) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2025.2561401 · Cited by 1
“…teacher observations of disparate student interactions for sociodemographic subgroups could provide objective indicators of CRPs and provide useful performance feedback via coaching to enhance culturally responsive practices (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Debnam et al., 2024; Reinke et al., 2011, 2016).”
Self-citationOwens, J. S., Vitucci, D., Evans, S. W., & Sibley, M. H. (2025) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2025.2578845 · Cited by 1
“interventions with high quality and consistency (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Owens et al., 2021; Reinke et al., 2011).”
InfluentialNewman, C. G., Kaihoi, C. A., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2025) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2025.2574834 · Cited by 1
“Data come from a larger Institutional Review Board approved study of a CRT, professional development, and coaching model called Double Check (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Debnam et al., 2024).”
InfluentialSelf-citationHugh, M. L., Cueto, A. P. M., Bruzios, K. E., Corbin, C. M., Gaias, L. M., Landa, Y., Joshi, M., Reyes, R., Goosey, R., Pullmann, M. D., et al. (2025) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2025.2595110 · Cited by 2
“MI strongly influences an individual’s motivation to change their behaviors (Gayes & Steele, 2014) and has emerging effects for educational and health practitioners (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Pas & Bradshaw, 2021).”
Debnam, K. J., Newman, C. G., Smith, L. H., Kaihoi, C. A., & Bottiani, J. H. (2025) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2025.2592299 · Cited by 1
“…et al. (2018); Debnam et al. (2015); Hershfeldt et al. (2009) and has been used to guide teacher professional development and coaching to build capacity to implement culturally responsive practices in the context of an intervention called Double Check (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Debnam et al., 2024).”
InfluentialSelf-citationFranco, M. P., Rouiller, S., Bradshaw, C. P., Pas, E. T., Pandey, T., Kaihoi, C. A., & Bottiani, J. H. (2025) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2025.2596780 · Cited by 1
“This measure has been used for estimating dosage in prior studies (e.g., see Bradshaw et al., 2018; Debnam et al., 2024; Pas et al., 2016).”
Self-citationPromoting Equity-Centred Tier 1 Supports in an MTSS Framework
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“…restorative practices, and relational teaching helped reduce racial dispropor-tionality in referrals and exclusionary discipline (Gregory et al., 2019; Bradshaw et al., 2018), including studies that integrated systemic reform to school policies and procedures (e.g., Betters-Bubon et al., 2016).”
InfluentialBrass, N. R., Bergin, C. C., Rose, C. A., Kilday, J. E., Campbell, A., Prewett, S. L., Payton, J., & Mirielli, L. G. (2026) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.70161 · Cited by 1
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“Interns read research, such as Cook et al. (2018) and Bradshaw et al. (2018), on reducing discipline disparities for Black males to identify potential evidence-based practices to address identified inequities at their school sites.”
BackgroundAn Analysis of Teachers’ Equity in Office Discipline Referrals
Austin, S. C., McIntosh, K., Smolkowski, K., & Baldy, T. S. (2025) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2025.2465955 · Cited by 1
“…examining the use of consultants or coaches increasing the teacher’s awareness of bias and the effects in can have on decision-making and providing feedback on the teacher’s use of taught strategies to engage students more equitably (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Gion et al., 2022; Mossing et al., 2024).”
Pas, E. T., Ünlü, A., Skrzypek, C., Ma, J., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2025) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2025.2553277 · Cited by 1
“Coaching embedding MI has been applied to promote teacher use of culturally responsive practices (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Debnam et al., 2024), practices to address student bullying (Pas et al., 2019), and to reduce discipline disproportionality (Gion et al., 2022).”
Self-citationAiyedun, F. (2019) · doi:10.7916/d8-5ngm-5s20 · Cited by 1
“According to Bradshaw et al. (2018), there is the “potential promise of coaching combined with school-wide professional development for improving classroom management” (p. 130).”
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“Observational data was collected during general instruction primarily using the Assessing School Settings: Interactions of Students and Teachers (ASSIST) Observation System (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Rusby et al., 2001), a school-based observation system for assessing student behaviors in the classroom and 20+ 2 (1.9) 1…”
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“It has been adapted to improve teacher delivery of social emotional curriculum to students (Reinke et al., 2012) and culturally responsive practices (Bradshaw et al., 2018) as well as to intervene in bullying behavior (Pas et al., 2019).”
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Self-citationAnalysis of Information Security Intelligent Teaching Course based on Virtual Simulation Technology
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Gaias, L. M., Cook, C. R., Duong, M. T., Chandler, C., Kiche, S. W., Corbin, C. M., & Buntain‐Ricklefs, J. (2026) · Global Implementation Research and Applications · doi:10.1007/s43477-025-00185-3
Cultural Responsiveness and Teacher-Student Relationships in Urban Charter Public Schools
Phelps, C., Francois, S., Rice, K. G., Baker, C. N., & Overstreet, S. (2026) · Education and Urban Society · doi:10.1177/00131245261421205
“Researchers have indicated that culturally responsive teacher-student relationships are associated with high levels of psychological engagement, school attendance and engagement, and reduced levels of disruptive behaviors, suspension, and dropout (Bradshaw et al., 2018; Quin, 2017).”
Owens, J. S., Evans, S. W., Allan, N. P., Dillon, C., Himawan, L. K., Medina, D., Shea, M., & Vitucci, D. (2026) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2026.101585 · Cited by 1
Bradshaw, C. P., Pandey, T., Chung, E., Francis, M. K., & Bottiani, J. H. (2026) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.70196
Self-citationHerman, K. C., Reinke, W. M., Bradshaw, C. P., & Debnam, K. J. (2026) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2026.2693983 · Cited by 1
“We conducted a teacher level randomized controlled trial (RCT) within an Institute of Education Sciences (IES) Development project, whereby all teachers were exposed to the Double Check PD and half received CCU-informed coaching.”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Bradshaw, C. P., Pas, E. T., Bottiani, J. H., Debnam, K. J., Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., & Rosenberg, M. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- University of Missouri (US)
- SUNY New Paltz (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bradshaw, Catherine P.
- ORCID
- Venue
- School Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2018-06-01
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 118-134
- ISSN
- 0279-6015 (ISSN-L)
- 2372-966X
- OpenAlex
- W2808090866
- Cited by
- 185
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 4
- FWCI
- 48.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- School Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León
- Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit
- Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Teacher Education and Leadership Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Keywords
- cultural responsiveness, student engagement, teacher coaching, classroom management, teacher self-efficacy, Black students, office discipline referrals, elementary and middle school teachers
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