The DOI matches its Crossref record; 61 of the 61 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 24 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD
Open accessAbstract
This paper analyses the response of female labour force participation to the evolution of labour markets and policies supporting the reconciliation of work and family life. Using country-level data from the early 1980s for 18 OECD countries, we estimate the influence of labour market and institutional characteristics on female labour force participation, and full-time and part-time employment participation. The relationship (interactions, complementarity) between different policy measures is also analyzed, as well as potential variations in the influence of policies across different Welfare regimes. The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in parttime employment opportunities have boosted women’s participation in the labour force. By contrast, there is no such clear relationship between female employment rates and the growing share of public employment. Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation. Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness. In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women’s participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection. The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries. In all, the findings suggest that the effect of childcare services on female employment is stronger in the presence of other measures supporting working mothers (as, for instance paid parental leave) while the presence of such supports seems to reduce the effectiveness of financial incentives to work for second earners. The effect of cash benefits for families and the duration of paid leave on female labour force participation also vary across welfare regimes.
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55 Own result · 53 No basis given · 41 Own interpretation · 18 Own method · 6 No full text of the sources · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Sources not found · 1 Supported · 1 Supported so far
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In the paper
“The available evidence suggests that, on average, the provision of paid leave produces a slight increase in the proportion of women engaged in paid work ( Del Boca et al., 2007;Jaumotte, 2003;Ruhm, 1998;and, Thévenon and Solaz, 2013).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 14.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Del Boca et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jaumotte, 2003 source
- Supportedcites Ruhm, 1998 source
The Discussion reports that rights to short periods of paid parental leave increase women’s employment-to-population ratios by 3–4 percent, consistent with a slight increase in the proportion employed. The paper notes that some of the measured increase reflects women on leave being counted as employed. (LLM, conf=0.92)
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- Not matched
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In the paper
“In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women's participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
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In the paper
“Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
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In the paper
“Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
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In the paper
“Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
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In the paper
“By contrast, there is no such clear relationship between female employment rates and the growing share of public employment.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in parttime employment opportunities have boosted women's participation in the labour force.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in parttime employment opportunities have boosted women's participation in the labour force.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > SUMMARY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 21
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Their labour supply is highly responsive to variations in tax rates, especially when they can easily substitute their market activities with home production (Garibaldi and Wasmer, 2004).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 21.
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Garibaldi and Wasmer, 2004 source
Section 3.2, “The Effects of Taxation,” says that reducing taxes shifts women from home production into full-time market activity, and that a high tax wedge encourages movement away from market production when the activities are highly substitutable. Section 2.1 identifies women's market and home production as the model's alternatives. The claim is a qualitative paraphrase; the paper does not quantify the degree of responsiveness. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Women are often the second earner in households, earning less than their partner.
- Supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is an unambiguous positive correlation between the provision of childcare services for the under-3s and full-time and part-time female participation in the labour market.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 47.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first three rows of Table 2 show that the growth of employment in the services sector and the rising incidence of part-time work had a positive effect on female labour force participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 40.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first three rows of Table 2 show that the growth of employment in the services sector and the rising incidence of part-time work had a positive effect on female labour force participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 40.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Countries in Southern Europe are characterised by limited supports for working families and low public spending on family cash benefits, childcares services and thus low childcare participation (Table A1).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 30.
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In the paper
“Cross-national differences are still wide, however (Figure 1), with female employment rates being persistently high in Denmark and Iceland around 80% and persistently low in Turkey at around 30%.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 9.
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In the paper
“Public spending on family cash benefits is sometimes found to have a significant effect on female employment participation, but this finding is not robust across model specifications.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 48.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in the model that separates the effects of full-time and part-time work, each additional year in education appears to lower the chances of working full-time.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 43.
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In the paper
“Continental countries form a more heterogeneous group that occupies an intermediate position between the Anglophone and Nordic countries.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 30.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The growth of employment in the services and the rising incidence of part-time work have had a positive effect on female participation in the labour force.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 80.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The analysis suggests that policies to foster greater enrolment in formal childcare have a small but significant effect on full-time and part-time labour force participation -and these effects are much more robust than the effects of paid leave or other family benefits.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 81.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, the association between the per child spending in family cash benefits and labour force participation and full-time employment is strongly positive in”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 73.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both in-cash and in-kind support have been found to play a significant role.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 81.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“where increases in the duration of paid leave, and/or the relative tax rates faced by second earners in couple families appear to reduce female employment rates.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 85.
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In the paper
“Conversely, higher tax rates on second earners discourage women's participation in the labour market, and that effect is tempered in a work-life balance friendly institutional environment.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 82.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Conversely, taxing second earners has a negative effect on female labour force participation and full-time employment.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 66.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The efficiency of each policy instrument is linked in a non-linear manner with the sum of the direct effects of all institutions.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, the association between the per child spending in family cash benefits and labour force participation and full-time employment is strongly positive in”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 73.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adding these variables as regressors in a pooled OLS model does not give credible results as our panel data set is too unbalanced and generates coefficient estimates with very large standard errors (see Appendix, TableA3).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
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In the paper
“Second, the last section of this paper provides evidence that not only the magnitude but also the sign of the influence of policy measures varies across Welfare States”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
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In the paper
“In such a context, additional weeks of paid leave appear to weaken labour force attachment and seem to raise the propensity to work part-time rather than full-time.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 86.
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In the paper
“Small sample sizes might prevent the emergence of significant terms.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 61.
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In the paper
“This appears to suggest that female labour market participation has expanded through two separate channels: an increase in part-time work in some countries and growth of public employment in others.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 41.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This outcome might reflect the fact that a greater or higher-quality provision of care increases average expenditure per child, so making it easier to work full-time.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 47.
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In the paper
“Institutional interplay may thus create complementarities between policies, which suggest that the marginal efficiency of a particular kind of support from one institution is likely to depend on the presence or degree of development of others (Aoki, 1994;Bassanini and Duval, 2006;and, Hall and Soskice, 2001).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 49.
What the sources say
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, the effect of services seems to diminish when spending on leave is higher, which may reflect a greater use of leave entitlements by women with very young children.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 60.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Overall, this analysis has shown that trends in female labour force participation within economies are influenced by: • the structure of the labour market • the institutional setting that supports work-life balance • the improvement in women's average level of educational attainment.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 79.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as it may facilitate moves into full-time work or improve the quality of childcare without affecting hours worked per week.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 82.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It might be the case that in-cash benefits are especially important to cover the fixed cost of mothers' labour force participation at full-time in Continental countries where formal childcare services are relatively scarce (except in France).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 73.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Formal childcare services are relatively scarce in Continental countries (except France).
- The authors state this as an assumption: The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding makes sense in countries where labour markets are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force as well as adjustment of working hours to better fit family needs and constraints, such as high childcare costs.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 85.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Labour markets in English-speaking countries are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force and adjusting working hours to fit family needs.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this context, an increase in the duration of paid leave will attract more women to stay in work until childbirth, and the reward of qualifying for paid leave is strongest for low-income workers, with relatively high replacement rates.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 86.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: In Continental and Southern European countries, there are considerable formal childcare constraints and flexible labour market opportunities are more limited than in Anglophone countries.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which seems to suggest that economies have used public employment and part-time work as two separate channels to boost female labour force participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 80.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“where the expansion childcare services seems to have merely changed informal into formal provision and have made it somewhat more likely for women to work part-time work.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 84.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results are preliminary, since the data constraints do affect robustness tests.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 84.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For this reason, two other model specifications separately address full-time and part-time participation as dependent variables.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 35.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It should also be noted that variables are defined in natural logarithms.The only exception the indicator on tax incentives to work part time, which is expressed as percentage increases.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 38.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model is estimated by two-stage least squares with heteroskedasticity-consistent errors.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 38.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The provision of childcare services for the under-3s is essential to raise full-time employment among women in all countries, but its effect varies.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 84.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tax incentives to work part-time are then included in the equation for part-time participation.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 35.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other potentially endogenous variables -also instrumented by their lagged values -are unemployment and birth rates.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 38.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Unemployment and birth rates are potentially endogenous.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In these circumstances, increases in leave duration merely postpone working hours decision for a few weeks/months and may reduce female employment rates, as increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 85.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This proportion is also instrumented by its lagged values (and by the exogenous variables of the model) in order to limit the potential bias due to endogeneity of part-time work.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 35.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Part-time work is often the result of labour supply decisions, although it can be shaped by demand-side constraints.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The full model includes the incidence of part-time work as an explanatory variable, but its inclusion can introduce a bias into estimates.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 35.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All the estimated models include country-fixed effects to focus on the variations over time and within a given country of the relationship between female labour force participation and its determinants.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 38.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other countries also support sole parent families in need, but through general social assistance type payments.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Available information on public spending on early childhood education and care in the United States may also underestimate the true level amount of local government spending on relevant policies.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“estimating a model specification with four couples of multiplicative institutions ( I k , I h ), ( I k , I m ), ( I k , I n ), and ( Ik , I p) would, in fact, involve incorporating a total of 26 interactions terms in the equation -the total number of combinations of two or more variables within a set of five institutions, thereby causing a substantial loss of degrees of freedom.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“It also coincides with differences in organisations that provide social protection and welfare support to workers and their families(Esping-Andersen, 1999;Estevez-Abe et al., 2001;and, Soskice, 2005).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data on cash transfers for Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom include spending on categorical income support benefits for sole parent families.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Canada, information on spending by local governments (that are responsible for childcare and pre-school education) is not reported to Federal government.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“One approach to account for common factors with heterogeneous factor loadings is to use cross-section averages of the dependent and independent variables as additional regressors(Pesaran, 2006).”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pesaran, 2006 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In the”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Enrolment in childcare services:
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Women are often the second earner in households, earning less than their partner.
“Women are often the”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The efficiency of each policy instrument is dependent on the sum of effects that all institutions may have together on labour market decisions.
“One way to test this assumes that the efficiency of each instrument would be dependent on the sum of effects that all institutions may have together on labour market decisions.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The efficiency of each policy instrument is linked in a non-linear manner with the sum of the direct effects of all institutions.
“One way to test for systemic interaction is to assume that the efficiency of each policy instrument is linked in a non-linear manner with the sum of the direct effects of all institutions, as expressed by the following equation:”
The paper relies on this without support.
Part-time work is often the result of labour supply decisions, although it can be shaped by demand-side constraints.
“That is because part-time work is often the result of labour supply decisions, although it can be shaped by demand-side constraints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The decision regarding the use of formal childcare is to some extent simultaneous with the choice between work and inactivity.
“Because the decision regarding the use of formal childcare is to some extent simultaneous with the choice between work and inactivity, the use of childcare enrolment rates as a regressor introduces a risk of bias in the estimated coefficients.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Unemployment and birth rates are potentially endogenous.
“Other potentially endogenous variables -also instrumented by their lagged values -are unemployment and birth rates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Formal childcare services are relatively scarce in Continental countries (except France).
“where formal childcare services are relatively scarce (except in France).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Labour markets in English-speaking countries are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force and adjusting working hours to fit family needs.
“where labour markets are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force as well as adjustment of working hours to better fit family needs and constraints, such as high childcare costs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.
“as increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In Continental and Southern European countries, there are considerable formal childcare constraints and flexible labour market opportunities are more limited than in Anglophone countries.
“In these countries, there are considerable formal childcare constraints while flexible labour market opportuinities are more limited than in Anglophone countries”
The paper relies on this without support.
Until recently many Anglophone countries included (and Ireland still does) categorical income support for sole parents until their dependent children were in their teens.
“Until recently many Anglophone countries included (and Ireland still does) categorical income support for sole parents until their dependent children were in their teens.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.
“where the marginal effect ( ) of policy variables is now assumed to be conditional on countries' Welfare State context”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The effect of labour market characteristics and policies is homogeneous across countries.
“This fixed-effect approach assumes that the effect of labour market characteristics and policies is homogeneous across countries (a hypothesis which will be further discussed below).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Common shocks (recessions, context of production changes) affect all countries in the same way.
“yearly time dummies control for common shocks (recessions, context of production changes) which are assumed to affect all countries in the same way”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There are no unobserved common 'factors' whose effect may differ across countries.
“it also implicitly assumes that there are no unobserved common 'factors' whose effect may differ across countries.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Part-time 1 female employment rate (women aged 25-54) Overall 27.7 10.8 7.5 60.5 N = 472 Between 10.5 11.5 54.8 n= 18 Within 3.4 17.2 38.3 =22.2”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 34.
Reported 22.2 · recomputed 26.222222
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Additional information
“Spending on leave and birth grants (per childbirth, US$ PPP) Overall 4164 3556 0 1352 N = 132”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Additional information
“Between 3358 174 9272 n= 5”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 66.
“However, the negative interaction with the overall institutional context suggests that the influence of taxation weakens the more employment-friendly the policy setting is.”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Labour force participation
“Tax rate of a second earner 0.349*** (0.106) 0.395*** (0.078) 0.401*** (0.072)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Full-time female employment rate (women aged 25-54) Overall 72.2 10.8 39.4 92.4 N = 472 Between 10.5 45.1 88.4 n= 18 Within 3.4 61.6 82.7 =22.2”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 34.
Reported 22.2 · recomputed 26.222222
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Labour force participation
“Service coverage for children under 3 0.168*** (0.057) 0.111*** (0.030) 0.062** (0.028) 0.130** (0.066) 0.102* (0.056) 0.112*** (0.036) 0.027** (0.049) 0.044 (0.044) ..”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Labour force participation
“Standard errors in brackets.*,**, *** statistically significant at the 10%, 5% and 1% levels, respectively”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Service coverage for children under age 3 Overall 16.1 9.4 2 35.1 N = 168 Between 7.7 7.9 30.8 n= 18 Within 6.7 3.2 35.2 =13.5”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Additional information
Reported 13.5 · recomputed 28
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 34.
“Spending on childcare services (per child under age 3, US$ PPP) Overall 3314.9 3892.1 0 5392.4N = 504”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > Additional information
“Spending on childcare services (per child under age 3, US$ PPP) Overall 7746 4341 0 19405 N = 112”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Proportion of women among part-time workers 3 Overall 76.4 7.2 59.8 91.9 N = 469 Between 6.7 66.9 87.0 n= 18 Within 3.0 66.9 86.8 = 22.7”
§ OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS No. 145 Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD > 34.
Reported 22.7 · recomputed 26.055556
Citations
Cites
General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels
Pesaran, M. H. (2004) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.572504 · Cited by 8,738
Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage
Porter, P. K., Hall, P. A., & Soskice, D. (2003) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/30040740 · Cited by 7,512
Testing for Weak Instruments in Linear IV Regression
Stock, J. H., & Yogo, M. (2005) · Identification and Inference for Econometric Models · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511614491.006 · Cited by 7,211
Social Foundations of Postindustrial Economies
Esping-Andersen, G. (1999) · doi:10.1093/0198742002.001.0001 · Cited by 6,253
Understanding Interaction Models: Improving Empirical Analyses
Brambor, T., Clark, W. R., & Golder, M. (2006) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpi014 · Cited by 6,223
Estimating long-run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels
Pesaran, M. H., & Smith, R. (1995) · Journal of Econometrics · doi:10.1016/0304-4076(94)01644-f · Cited by 5,479
Estimation and Inference in Large Heterogeneous Panels with a Multifactor Error Structure
Pesaran, M. H. (2006) · Econometrica · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0262.2006.00692.x · Cited by 5,078
(1971) · Cited by 2,327
Panel data and unobservable individual effects
Hausman, J., & Taylor, W. (1981) · Journal of Econometrics · doi:10.1016/0304-4076(81)90085-3 · Cited by 2,309
Panel Data and Unobservable Individual Effects
Hausman, J. A., & Taylor, W. E. (1981) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/1911406 · Cited by 2,264
Research works printed but not linked: 2
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Cited by
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The Pursuit of Gender Equality
OECD (2017) · OECD eBooks · doi:10.1787/9789264281318-en · Cited by 537
Partners’ Educational Pairings and Fertility Across Europe
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Metadata
- Authors
- Thévenon, O.
- Affiliations
- Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Economiques (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Olivier Thévenon
- Venue
- OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers
- Published
- 2013-05-23
- ISSN
- 1815-199X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1852261349
- Cited by
- 177
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 9
- Type
- report
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- OECD social employment and migration working papers (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Work-Family Balance Challenges
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Industrial relations › Employment, Labor, and Gender Studies
- Keywords
- female labour force participation, work-family balance, childcare services, paid parental leave, part-time work, welfare regimes, employment protection, tax rates, women's educational attainment, service sector growth, public sector employees, working mothers
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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