Anaphylaxis: Mediators, Biomarkers, and Microenvironments
Open accessAbstract
The life-threatening nature of anaphylactic reactions has increased interest in discovering new biomarkers that could improve diagnosis and prevention. However, the diverse nature of the clinical features and the etiology and pathogenesis of anaphylaxis hinder the identification of valuable molecular indicators of disease. Most studies on anaphylaxis focus on the immune system. Anaphylactic reactions are characterized primarily by IgE-mediated activation of mast cells and basophils and release of mediators. Determination of serum tryptase levels is the main in vitro test used to confirm the reaction, although there are no biomarkers that can predict it. Nevertheless, recent research has postulated that alternative pathways, cell types, and systems are involved. Consequently, various molecular products have been explored and considered potential biomarkers, although none of them are yet used in clinical practice. The products that are altered in patients with anaphylaxis include vasoactive agents, proteases, proteoglycans, lipids, interleukins, cytokines, products of the complement-contact and coagulation systems, circulating proteins, extracellular vesicles, microRNAs, and metabolites. The recognition of biological processes and molecular pathways affecting the microenvironments involved in anaphylaxis will considerably improve clinical practice and the identification of better molecular markers. We offer a broad review of the various mediators described in anaphylaxis, consider their usefulness as potential biomarkers of this pathological event, and examine their role in the molecular basis of the reaction.
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Other mediators such as platelet-activating factor (PAF), prostaglandin D2, leukotriene E4, histamine, or other cytokines might be more sensitive in patients with food-induced anaphylaxis.
“It is possible that other mediators such as platelet-activating factor (PAF), prostaglandin D2, leukotriene E4, histamine, or other cytokines might be more sensitive in these patients [34,35,36,37].”
From Diagnostic Significance of Tryptase for Suspected Mast Cell Disorders (2023) · cites this paper as [36]
The sections on lipid molecules, histamine, and cytokines (pages unavailable) discuss these mediators as potential biomarkers in anaphylaxis; the paper also reports that PAF diagnosed a higher percentage of patients than histamine or tryptase. It does not establish that the listed mediators are more sensitive specifically in patients with food-induced anaphylaxis. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Anaphylactic shock after insectsting challenge in 138 persons with a previous insectsting reaction
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Apolipoprotein B: a possible new biomarker for anaphylaxis
Pettersson, M. E., Koppelman, G. H., Blok, B. M. J. F.-D., van Ginkel, C. D., Roozendaal, C., Kobold, A. C. M., Kollen, B. J., & Dubois, A. E. J. (2017) · Annals of Allergy Asthma & Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.anai.2017.01.021 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Activity-Based Probes to Utilize the Proteolytic Activity of Cathepsin G in Biological Samples
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Takahashi, T., Ono, S., Ogawa, K., Tamura, M., & Mizutani, T. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Elevated exhaled nitric oxide in anaphylaxis with respiratory symptoms
Nakamura, Y., Hashiba, Y., Endo, J., Furuie, M., Isozaki, A., & Yagi, K. (2015) · Allergology International · doi:10.1016/j.alit.2015.05.005 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Platelet Activating Factor, Histamine and Tryptase Levels in Human Anaphylaxis
VADAS, P., PERELMAN, B., & Liss, G. M. (2008) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.12.1125 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Editorial: New Insights In Anaphylaxis
Pastor‐Vargas, C., & Esteban, V. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.00506 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Association between the renin angiotensin system and anaphylaxis
Hermann, K., & Ring, J. (1994) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/0167-0115(94)90639-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Research works printed but not linked: 14
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Focus on mast cells in the tumor microenvironment: Current knowledge and future directions
Shi, S., Ye, L., Yu, X., Jin, K., & Wu, W. (2022) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.bbcan.2022.188845 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Extracellular vesicles and melanoma: New perspectives on tumor microenvironment and metastasis
Benito-Martin, A., Jasiulionis, M., & García-Silva, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.1061982 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Ménière’s disease and allergy: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapy
Xu, W., Li, X., Song, Y., Kong, L., Zhang, N., Liu, J., Li, G., Fan, Z., Lyu, Y., Zhang, D., et al. (2023) · Clinical and Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10238-023-01192-0 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Identifying patients at risk of anaphylaxis
Toit, G. D., Smith, P. K., Muraro, A. M., Fox, A. T., Roberts, G. C., Ring, J., & Worm, M. (2024) · World Allergy Organization Journal · doi:10.1016/j.waojou.2024.100904 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Diagnostic Significance of Tryptase for Suspected Mast Cell Disorders
Beyens, M., Toscano, A., Ebo, D., Gülen, T., & Sabato, V. (2023) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics13243662 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
IgE and non-IgE-mediated pathways in anaphylaxis
Worm, M., Pažur, K., Morakabati, P., & Redhu, D. (2025) · Seminars in Immunopathology · doi:10.1007/s00281-025-01056-7 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Nuñez‐Borque, E., Fernández‐Bravo, S., del Río, P. R., Palacio-García, L., Giannatale, A. D., Paolo, V. D., Galardi, A., Colletti, M., Pascucci, L., Tomé‐Amat, J., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1209874 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Svetina, M., Kunej, T., Korošec, P., & Rijavec, M. (2025) · Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology · doi:10.1007/s12016-025-09069-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Perioperative anaphylaxis: updates on pathophysiology
Jordan, J., Levy, J. H., & Gonzalez‐Estrada, A. (2024) · Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1097/aci.0000000000000994 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Advances in Mechanisms of Anaphylaxis in Wheat Allergy: Utility of Rodent Models
Arasan, T. S. A., Jorgensen, R. D., Antwerp, C. V., Ng, P. K. W., & Gangur, V. (2025) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods14050883 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Circulating serum profile of small non-coding RNAs in patients with anaphylaxis beyond microRNAs
Fernández‐Bravo, S., Betancor, D., Cuesta‐Herranz, J., del Río, P. R., Ibáñez-Sandín, M. D., Nuñez‐Borque, E., & Esteban, V. (2024) · Frontiers in Allergy · doi:10.3389/falgy.2024.1307880 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Increased miR ‐21‐3p levels in extracellular vesicles of children with food anaphylaxis
Nuñez‐Borque, E., del Río, P. R., Paolo, V. D., Fernández‐Bravo, S., Galardi, A., Bazire, R., Ibáñez, M. D., Benito‐Martín, A., Giannatale, A. D., & Esteban, V. (2024) · Pediatric Allergy and Immunology · doi:10.1111/pai.14241 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Aggrawal, A. (2024) · Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-21441-7.00007-8
Immunologic basis of allergies and hyperresponsiveness
Mahdi, B. M. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15502-4.00001-x
Genetic, morphological and functional characteristics of human tryptase
Евгеньевна, Т. Н., Lebedenko, A. A., Евгеньевна, С. О., DOBAEVA, N. M., Skosar, V. O., Haygetyan, N. Y., Krivokhlyabov, I., & Shkilnyuk, S. P. (2025) · Allergology and Immunology in Pediatrics · doi:10.53529/2500-1175-2025-2-4-14
Role of Inflammasome in IgE ‐Mediated Anaphylaxis
Fernández‐Bravo, S., & Fernández‐Santamaría, R. (2025) · Allergy · doi:10.1111/all.70123
Circulating miR-29a as a new biomarker of food anaphylaxis and endothelial glycocalyx regulationPreprint
Muñoz-Callejas, A., Moreno-Vidal, A., Henar, A., Palacio-García, L., Fernández‐Bravo, S., Maria-Camacho, I. D., Giannatale, A. D., Gómez-López, A., del Río, P. R., Laguna, J. J., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.04.06.716635
- Authors
- Fernandez-Bravo, S., Palacio-Garcia, L., Requena-Robledo, N., Yuste-Montalvo, A., Nuñez-Borque, E., & Esteban, V
- Affiliations
- Universidad Alfonso X el Sabio (ES)
- ORCID
- Esteban, V
- Venue
- Journal of Investigational Allergology and Clinical Immunology
- Publisher
- Esmon Publicidad, SA
- Published
- 2022-12-16
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 419-437
- ISSN
- 1018-9068 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4293215229
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 200
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 0.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Investigational Allergology and Clinical Immunology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI18/00348, RD16/0006/0013, RD 16/0006, PI21/00158)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Mast cells and histamine
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Immunology and Allergy › Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Drug-Induced Adverse Reactions
- Keywords
- anaphylaxis, IgE-mediated mast cell activation, basophils, serum tryptase, vasoactive drugs, proteolytic enzymes, proteoglycans, interleukins, cytokines, complement system, coagulation system, extracellular vesicles, microRNA, metabolites, tissue microenvironment
- MeSH terms
- Anaphylaxis, Basophils, Humans, Mast Cells, Biomarkers, Cytokines
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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