Wolves–coyotes–foxes: a cascade among carnivores
Abstract
Due to the widespread eradication of large canids and felids, top predators in many terrestrial ecosystems are now medium-sized carnivores such as coyotes. Coyotes have been shown to increase songbird and rodent abundance and diversity by suppressing populations of small carnivores such as domestic cats and foxes. The restoration of gray wolves to many parts of North America, however, could alter this interaction chain. Here we use a 30-year time series of wolf, coyote, and fox relative abundance from the state of Minnesota, USA, to show that wolves suppress coyote populations, which in turn releases foxes from top-down control by coyotes. In contrast to mesopredator release theory, which has often considered the consequence of top predator removal in a three-species interaction chain (e.g., coyote-fox-prey), the presence of the top predator releases the smaller predator in a four-species interaction chain. Thus, heavy predation by abundant small predators might be more similar to the historical ecosystem before top-predator extirpation. The restructuring of predator communities due to the loss or restoration of top predators is likely to alter the size spectrum of heavily consumed prey with important implications for biodiversity and human health.
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At regional scales, inverse density relationships between wolves and coyotes and between coyotes and foxes are supported by accounts of spatial and temporal separation.
“At a broader (regional) scale, inverse relationships between the densities of both wolves and coyotes (Berger & Gese 2007), and coyotes and foxes (Fedriani et al. 2000;Levi & Wilmers 2012) are supported by numerous accounts of spatial and temporal separation.”
From A continental scale trophic cascade from wolves through coyotes to foxes (2015) · cites this paper as Levi & Wilmers 2012
Coyotes and red foxes have similar habitat requirements.
“This reflects the fact that coyotes and red foxes have similar habitat requirements (McDonald et al. 2008;Levi & Wilmers 2012).”
From A continental scale trophic cascade from wolves through coyotes to foxes (2015) · cites this paper as Levi & Wilmers 2012
Background population fluctuations and poor trapping weather apply equally to coyotes and red foxes because of their biological similarities.
“However, with respect to the first two factors, these apply equally to coyotes and red foxes because of their biological similarities (McDonald et al. 2008;Levi & Wilmers 2012).”
From A continental scale trophic cascade from wolves through coyotes to foxes (2015) · cites this paper as Levi & Wilmers 2012
At a smaller spatial scale than this study, Levi and Wilmers showed that when wolves suppress coyote populations, foxes are released from coyote top-down control.
“For example, at a smaller spatial scale than our analyses, Levi & Wilmers (2012) showed that as wolves suppress coyote populations, foxes are released from top-down control by coyotes.”
From A continental scale trophic cascade from wolves through coyotes to foxes (2015) · cites this paper as Levi & Wilmers 2012
Levi and Wilmers demonstrated that bottom-up factors, land-use changes, and habitat differences are insufficient to explain spatial relationships among wolves, coyotes, and foxes.
“Our results therefore accord with those of Levi & Wilmers (2012) who demonstrated that bottom-up factors, land-use changes and habitat differences are insufficient to explain the pattern of spatial relationships between wolves, coyotes and foxes.”
From A continental scale trophic cascade from wolves through coyotes to foxes (2015) · cites this paper as Levi & Wilmers 2012
If wolf populations expand and suppress coyotes, a release of foxes could result in wolf- and fox-dominant prey being consumed.
“if wolf populations expand and suppress coyotes, it is possible that a release of foxes will result in wolf-and fox-dominant prey being consumed (Levi & Wilmers 2012).”
From A continental scale trophic cascade from wolves through coyotes to foxes (2015) · cites this paper as Levi & Wilmers 2012
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- Authors
- Levi, T., & Wilmers, C. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Corresponding author
- Levi, Taal
- Venue
- Ecology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-04
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 921-929
- ISSN
- 0012-9658 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-9170
- OpenAlex
- W2072484216
- Cited by
- 293
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 7.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Ecology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Keywords
- gray wolves, coyote, red fox, mesopredator release, top-down control, predator-prey interactions, Minnesota
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Feeding Behavior, Foxes, Minnesota, Population Dynamics, Seasons, Wolves, Food Chain, Coyotes
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