Cited by 272Zoonotic diseases and public healthParasite Biology and Host InteractionsLand Use and Ecosystem Services

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Does biodiversity protect humans against infectious disease?

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Wood, Chelsea L., Lafferty, Kevin D., DeLeo, Giulio, Young, Hillary S., Hudson, Peter J., Kuris, Armand M.·2014·Ecology

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Abstract

Control of human infectious disease has been promoted as a valuable ecosystem service arising from the conservation of biodiversity. There are two commonly discussed mechanisms by which biodiversity loss could increase rates of infectious disease in a landscape. First, loss of competitors or predators could facilitate an increase in the abundance of competent reservoir hosts. Second, biodiversity loss could disproportionately affect non‐competent, or less competent reservoir hosts, which would otherwise interfere with pathogen transmission to human populations by, for example, wasting the bites of infected vectors. A negative association between biodiversity and disease risk, sometimes called the “dilution effect hypothesis,” has been supported for a few disease agents, suggests an exciting win–win outcome for the environment and society, and has become a pervasive topic in the disease ecology literature. Case studies have been assembled to argue that the dilution effect is general across disease agents. Less touted are examples in which elevated biodiversity does not affect or increases infectious disease risk for pathogens of public health concern. In order to assess the likely generality of the dilution effect, we review the association between biodiversity and public health across a broad variety of human disease agents. Overall, we hypothesize that conditions for the dilution effect are unlikely to be met for most important diseases of humans. Biodiversity probably has little net effect on most human infectious diseases but, when it does have an effect, observation and basic logic suggest that biodiversity will be more likely to increase than to decrease infectious disease risk.

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“…realistic test of these predictions, resolving one of the most important (Poulin, 2021) and contentious (Randolph & Dobson, 2012; Lafferty & Wood, 2013; Ostfeld & Keesing, 2013; Wood & Lafferty, 2013; Wood et al. , 2014, 2016; Levi et al. , 2016) questions in contemporary parasite ecology.”
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BackgroundInfluential
Does biodiversity protect humans against infectious disease? Reply
Wood, C. L., Lafferty, K. D., Leo, G. A. D., Young, H. S., Hudson, P. J., & Kuris, A. M. (2016) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/15-1503.1 · Cited by 28
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“These hypotheses were encapsulated into the related concepts of zooprophylaxis and the dilution effect (Keesing et al., 2006; Randolph & Dobson 2012; Wood et al., 2014).”
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Background
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Background
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“effects of biodiversity loss on infectious diseases stems from the high likelihood that responses will vary as a function of the specific host–parasite interaction involved (Wood et al., 2014a; Wood et al., 2016; Halliday et al., 2017; Wood et al., 2017), as well as the difference between “randomized” versus “realisti…”
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“Additionally, several researchers have suggested that amplification and no effects also exist in the natural world (Wood et al., 2014; Halliday et al., 2017; Rohr et al., 2019; Vadell et al., 2019).”
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Background
Protective effect of predator species richness on human hantavirus infection incidence
Min, K., Kim, H., Hwang, S.-S., Cho, S., Schneider, M. C., Hwang, J., & Cho, S. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78765-6 · Cited by 9
Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in wild rodents: using occupancy models to estimate drivers of occurrence and prevalence in native forest and exotic Pinus radiata plantations from Central Chile
Infante, J., Riquelme, M., Huerta, N., Oettinger, S., Fredes, F., Simonetti, J. A., & Rubio, A. V. (2022) · Acta Tropica · doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106635 · Cited by 9
Towards an integrative mechanistic framework for biodiversity–consumer relationships
Halliday, F. W., Everingham, S. E., Bröcher, M., Ebeling, A., Kempel, A., Mundim, F. M., Strauss, A. T., Xirocostas, Z. A., & Kohli, M. (2025) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2025.03.005 · Cited by 8
The spatial reproduction number in a cellular automaton model for vector-borne diseases applied to the transmission of Chagas disease
Cissé, B., Yacoubi, S. E., & Gourbière, S. (2016) · SIMULATION · doi:10.1177/0037549715626520 · Cited by 8
Environmental change and the ecology of infectious disease
Wood, C. L. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aaa1810 · Cited by 8
Self-citation
How do host population dynamics impact Lyme disease risk dynamics in theoretical models?
Savage, J. D. T., & Moore, C. M. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0302874 · Cited by 7
Pathogens, people, and the planet: a systematic review of biodiversity decline, zoonotic spillover, and climate-driven health vulnerabilities
Silva, H. M., & Soares, E. M. (2025) · Biodiversity · doi:10.1080/14888386.2025.2531350 · Cited by 7
Effect of epidemic diseases on wild animal conservation
Hu, B., Han, S., & He, H. (2023) · Integrative Zoology · doi:10.1111/1749-4877.12720 · Cited by 9
What evidence exists on the impact of specific ecosystem components and functions on infectious diseases? A systematic map
Lugassy, L., Amdouni-Boursier, L., Alout, H., Berrebi, R., Boëte, C., Boué, F., Boulanger, N., Durand, T., Garine-Wichatitsky, M. D., Larrat, S., et al. (2021) · Environmental Evidence · doi:10.1186/s13750-021-00220-4 · Cited by 9
“Consequently, human health is somehow, positively or negatively, related to ecosystems and landscapes [3, 4]. generated less than 10 relevant articles, while 2 diseases (Lyme disease and West Nile disease) represented 44% of all relevant studies.”
Background
The abundance of snail hosts mediates the effects of antagonist interactions between trematodes on the transmission of human schistosomes
Douchet, P., Haegeman, B., Allienne, J., Boissier, J., Senghor, B., & Rey, O. (2024) · Infectious Diseases of Poverty · doi:10.1186/s40249-024-01232-1 · Cited by 6
“The generality and ecological importance of this dilution effect is, however, widely debated [10–12].”
Background
Global evidence synthesis on land-use change and zoonotic risks
Fell, A., Jagadesh, S., Duthie, A. B., Kirkpatrick, L., & Bunnefeld, N. (2026) · Nature Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s41893-025-01750-2 · Cited by 7
“Increased biodiversity during early recovery stages may temporarily heighten disease risks as ecosystems recover 23,24 .”
Comparing the differing effects of host species richness on metrics of disease
Cortez, M. H. (2024) · Ecological Monographs · doi:10.1002/ecm.1626 · Cited by 8
Diversity and Host Specificity of Avian Haemosporidians in an Afrotropical Conservation Region
Ndlovu, M., Wardjomto, M. B., Pori, T., & Nangammbi, T. C. (2024) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani14192906 · Cited by 6
“Conversely, it is worth noting that a positive relationship (an amplification effect) between pathogen prevalence and biodiversity may occur [49].”
Background
The relationship between biodiversity and infectious disease: Progress, challenge and perspective
Liu, X., Chen, L., & Zhou, S. (2020) · Biodiversity Science · doi:10.17520/biods.2020218 · Cited by 6
“宿主生物多样性与传染性疾病 ( 以下简称 “ 疾病 ”) 风险之间存在着千丝万缕的联系 (Wood et al, 2014; Rohr et al, 2020) 。在生物多样性大规模丧失的背景下 (Pimm et al, 2014”
What is the evidence that ecosystem components or functions have an impact on infectious diseases? A systematic review protocol
Lugassy, L., Amdouni-Boursier, L., Alout, H., Berrebi, R., Boëte, C., Boué, F., Boulanger, N., Cosson, J., Durand, T., Garine-Wichatitsky, M. D., et al. (2019) · Environmental Evidence · doi:10.1186/s13750-019-0147-5 · Cited by 7
Patterns of forest cover loss in the terrestrial Key Biodiversity Areas in the Philippines: critical habitat conservation priorities
Daipan, B. P. (2021) · Journal of Threatened Taxa · doi:10.11609/jott.6904.13.13.20019-20032 · Cited by 6
“Biodiversity also protects humans against infectious disease (Wood et al. 2014; Levi et al. 2016) To this end, the Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) approach was developed.”
Background
Associations between patterns of human intestinal schistosomiasis and snail and mammal species richness in Uganda: can we detect a decoy effect?
Stensgaard, A., Kristensen, T. K., Jørgensen, A., Kabatereine, N. B., & Rahbek, C. (2016) · Frontiers of Biogeography · doi:10.21425/f58321748 · Cited by 5
“cal context and the geographical scale of study (Wood et al. 2014).”
Background
Parasite spreading in spatial ecological multiplex networks
Stella, M., de Andreazzi, C. S., Selaković, S., Goudarzi, A., & Antonioni, A. (2016) · Journal of Complex Networks · doi:10.1093/comnet/cnw028 · Cited by 23
“In general, the effect of host diversity on parasite transmission depends on the ecological characteristics of hosts and on the mechanism of transmission [74].”
Background
Ecosystem Services and Maintaining Their Flow in Urban Environments: Nurturing Sustainable Flow in Urban Environments
Bisht, S., Singh, H., & Kumar, A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67837-0_21 · Cited by 5
Applications of the powerful next-generation sequencing tool for detecting parasitic infections: towards a smart laboratory platform
Basirpour, B., Tabaripour, R., Jafarian, F., Fakhar, M., Hezarjaribi, H. Z., & Gholami, S. (2025) · Microbial Pathogenesis · doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2025.107746 · Cited by 5
Using iDNA to determine impacts of Amazonian deforestation on Leishmania hosts, vectors, and their interactions
Massey, A. L., da Silva, D. J. F., Vieira, C. J. D. S. P., Allen, J. M., Canale, G. R., Bernardo, C. S. S., Bronzoni, R. V. D. M., Peres, C. A., & Levi, T. (2025) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0012925 · Cited by 10
Higher-order interactions on disease transmission can reverse the dilution effect or weaken the amplification effect to unimodal pattern
Chen, S., Liu, X., He, Q., & Zhou, S. (2022) · Ecological Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.110156 · Cited by 5
Nature's bounties: reliance on pollinators for health
Daily, G. C., & Karp, D. S. (2015) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)61244-2 · Cited by 5
The Relationship between Vector Species Richness and the Risk of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases
Takimoto, G., Shirakawa, H., & Sato, T. (2022) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/720403 · Cited by 5
“Transmission interference and susceptible host regulation are the two primary mechanisms by which host diversity can cause dilution (Wood et al. 2014).”
Background
Creating synergy between biodiversity conservation and human health — One Health
Li, B. V. (2020) · Biodiversity Science · doi:10.17520/biods.2020133 · Cited by 5
The wild life of tick-borne pathogens
Hofmeester, T. R. (2016) · doi:10.18174/393112 · Cited by 7
Parasite Abundance‐Occupancy Relationships Across Biogeographic Regions: Joint Effects of Niche Breadth, Host Availability and Climate
Wells, K., Bell, J. A., Fecchio, A., Drovetski, S. V., Galen, S. C., Hackett, S. J., Lutz, H. L., Skeen, H. R., Voelker, G., Wamiti, W., et al. (2024) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.15015 · Cited by 4
Cascading effects of sand stabilization on pathogen communities: Connecting global and local processes
Halle, S., Garrido, M., Noy, K., Messika, I., Kedem, H., Cohen, C., Ytzhak, K., Siegal, Z., Shenbrot, G. I., Abramsky, Z., et al. (2021) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.13423 · Cited by 4
Lesser snow goose helminths show recurring and positive parasite infection-diversity relations
Dargent, F., Morrill, A., Alisauskas, R. T., McLaughlin, J., Dave Shutler, A., & Forbes, M. R. (2017) · International Journal for Parasitology Parasites and Wildlife · doi:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2017.01.003 · Cited by 4
“This pattern is reminiscent of the amplification effect hypothesis (i.e. that increasing host diversity correlates with higher infection) supported in some host species assemblages (Wood et al., 2014), and consistent with the notion that diversity begets diversity (e.g. Krasnov et al., 2005).”
Result
Earth observation for public health: Biodiversity change and emerging disease surveillance
Malloy, S. S., Horack, J. M., Lee, J., & Newton, E. K. (2018) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.10.042 · Cited by 4
The Allee effect in hosts can weaken the dilution effect of host diversity on parasitoid infections
Chen, L., Huang, Z. Y. X., & Zhou, S. (2018) · Ecological Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.05.001 · Cited by 4
Messaging Should Reflect the Nuanced Relationship between Land Change and Zoonotic Disease Risk
Mader, A., Waters, N. A., Kawazu, E. C., Marvier, M., Monnin, N., & Salkeld, D. J. (2022) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biac075 · Cited by 4
Global risk assessment of Lyme borreliosis transmission
Cobos‐Mayo, M., Martín-Taboada, A., Aliaga‐Samanez, A., Segura, M., & Anarte, J. O. (2026) · Pathogens and Global Health · doi:10.1080/20477724.2026.2614633 · Cited by 3
“A high diversity of reservoirs, non-reservoir carriers, and dead-end hosts results into a constant circulation of Borrelia species between ticks and mammals; in spite of which the effect of a healthy community of mammals may imply the decrease of risk through the dilution effect [71].”
Beyond Species Richness: The Importance of Phylogenetic Dimensions of Biodiversity in Disease Ecology
Wang, Y., Matson, K. D., & de Boer, W. F. (2025) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/icaf093 · Cited by 3
“An evaluation of sixty-nine human parasites concluded that the dilution effect occurred in only 12% these parasites ( Wood et al. 2014 ).”
Anthropogenic Changes in Land Use Impact the Emergence and Transmission of Infectious Diseases
Silva, A. A. D. L. E. (2024) · Open Access Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology · doi:10.23880/oajmb-16000283 · Cited by 3
Virulence evolution
Schmid‐Hempel, P. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198832140.003.0013 · Cited by 3
Biological invasions in rodent communities: from ecological interactions to zoonotic bacterial infection issuesPreprint
Diagne, C. A., Galan, M., Tamisier, L., D’Ambrosio, J., Dalecky, A., Bâ, K., Kane, M. D., Niang, Y., Diallo, M., Sow, A., et al. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/108423 · Cited by 3
Eco-Immunology: Past, Present, and Future
Kernbach, M. E., Ramsay, C. T., Rohr, J. R., & Martin, L. B. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10890-5 · Cited by 3
“Although the scale of study and other factors can eliminate or even reverse the effects of biodiversity on disease risk (Wood et al., 2014), dilution effects are common enough (LoGiudice et al.”
Background
Potential effects of host competence and schooling behavior on parasite transmission in a host-pathogen system: a test of the dilution effect
Zhou, S., Jin, X., Duan, M., Zou, H., Li, M., Marcogliese, D. J., Wang, G., & Li, W. X. (2024) · International Journal for Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2024.08.002 · Cited by 3
Host–parasite co-evolution
Schmid‐Hempel, P. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198832140.003.0014 · Cited by 2
Impact of vector richness on the risk of vector‐borne disease: The role of vector competence
Chen, L., Tan, Z., Kong, P., Zhou, Y., & Zhou, L. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.11082 · Cited by 2
Exploring Metrics of Biological Diversity to Better Predict and Respond to Emerging Diseases
Swei, A., Broughton, H. M., Crews, A., Lilly, M. V., Shaw, G., & Summers, S. (2025) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/icaf064 · Cited by 3
“…per se is not the most important factor, but rather species identity, or the influence o f particularly strong interacting species, may be more important for driving observed patterns ( Randolph and Dobson 2012 ; Huang et al. 2014 ; Wood et al. 2014 ; Milholland et al. 2017 ; Wood et al. 2017 ).”
Integrating Proteomics for Facilitating Drug Identification and Repurposing During an Emerging Virus Pandemic
Schindell, B. G., Allardice, M., Lockman, S., & Kindrachuk, J. (2020) · ACS Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00579 · Cited by 2
The diversity and natural history of parasites
Schmid‐Hempel, P. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198832140.003.0003 · Cited by 2

Authors: Wood, C. L., Lafferty, K. D., DeLeo, G., Young, H. S., Hudson, P. J., & Kuris, A. M.
Affiliations: University of Colorado Boulder (US)
United States Geological Survey (US)
Smithsonian Institution (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
Corresponding author: Wood, Chelsea L.
ORCID: Wood, Chelsea L.
Lafferty, Kevin D.
Young, Hillary S.
Hudson, Peter J.
Kuris, Armand M.
Venue: Ecology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2014-04
Volume: 95
Issue: 4
Pages: 817-832
ISSN: 0012-9658 (ISSN-L)
1939-9170
DOI: 10.1890/13-1041.1
OpenAlex: W2043188267
Cited by: 268
References: 95
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 9
FWCI: 24.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Ecology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (1115965)
National Institutes of Health (OCE-1115965)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Zoonotic diseases and public health
Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Parasite Biology and Host Interactions
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
Keywords: biodiversity, infectious disease risk, ecosystem services, reservoir hosts, vector competence, pathogen transmission, biodiversity loss, disease ecology
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Biological, Animals, Communicable Diseases, Disease Vectors, Humans, Zoonoses, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Biodiversity, Host-Pathogen Interactions

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Does biodiversity protect humans against infectious disease?

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