Stalking Perpetrators and Psychological Maltreatment of Partners: Anger-Jealousy, Attachment Insecurity, Need for Control, and Break-Up Context

“These motives seem likely to lead to rejection, hurt feelings, and psychological or physical abuse—a possibility already documented to some extent by Davis, Ace, and Andra (2002), Fonagy (1999), and others.”

“In their two studies of undergraduate college students, Davis et al. (2000) estimated the extent of offending, and reported that 40% of respondents engaged in at least one stalking behavior following the breakup of a romantic relationship.”

“Definition and measurement Researchers have used numerous measures to assess UPB (e.g., Coleman, 1997; Cupach & Spitzberg, 1998; Davis et al., 2000; Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998).”

“…and when they realize they cannot control victims, the risk of violence and harassment, persistence and escalation, and life sabotage is increased (Davis et al., 2000; Dye & Davis, 2003; Campbell et al., 2003; LanghinrichsenRohling et al., 2000; Mullen et al., 1999; Roberts, 2002, 2005a, 2005b).”

“In this study, stalking was measured using a self-report inventory pre-tested and refined in two studies by Davis, Ace, and Andra (2000).”

“Going beyond simply minimizing the impact of their actions, in Davis et al. (2000) study of stalking, male pursuers perceived their acts as noble or romantic.”

“Prior research that has identified this correlation (Coleman, 1997; Davis et al., 2000; Logan et al., 2000; McFarlane et al., 1999; Mechanic, Uhlmansiek, et al., 2000; Mechanic, Weaver, et al., 2000; NIJ, 1997; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000; White et al., 2000).”

“As an extension of the work of others (Davis et al., 2000; Dye & Davis, 2003), future studies with larger and more representative samples of men could conduct similar analyses that compare the model tested in the current study to one that combines psychological abuse during the relationship and stalking after the rela…”

“Thus persistence varies in degrees (Cupach & Spitzberg, 2004; Davis et al., 2000; Haugaard & Seri, 2003; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Roberts, 2005), ranging from mild (e.g., repeated calls, messages, visits, and gifts) to extreme (e.g., surveillance, threats, verbal abuse, and physical…”

“…either relates directly to persistent pursuit, or the relationship is mediated by conceptually relevant variables such as the degree of anger and jealousy at being rejected or the degree of need to control one’s intimate partner (Davis et al. 2000; Dutton and Winstead 2006; Dye and Davis 2003).”

“…to stalking has provided insight into sources of individual differences that increase or decrease the likelihood that an individual will engage in stalking behaviors (Davis et al. 2000; Dutton and Winstead 2006a, b; Kienlen 1998; Lewis et al. 2001; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al. 2000; Tonin 2004).”

“Whereas some researchers have found a link between stalking and anger–jealousy emotions in particular (Davis et al., 2000; Dye & Davis, 2003; Sinclair & Frieze, 2000), other researchers have found a link between stalking and post-dissolution distress in general (Dutton & Winstead, 2006).”

“The original sample consisted of female victims of IPA whose cases had entered the criminal justice system (i.e., the abuser was arrested) in one of three jurisdictions in the United States: a medium-sized Midwestern city, a large Western metropolitan area, and a Western, rural, college county.”

“Research has identified an association between jealousy and stalking behavior (Davis et al., 2000; Dutton, Van Ginkel, & Landolt, 1996; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000; Mullen et al., 2000; Roberts, 2002; Silva, Derecho, Leong, & Ferrari, 2000).”

“Davis et al. (2000) investigated the association between stalkinglike behaviors and attachment, jealousy, control, and breakup context in college students. Generally, anger–jealousy scores were higher for those who were the recipient of the break-up, compared to those who were the instigator or who had mutually agreed…”

“…al. 1998), numerous studies found that more anxiously (preoccupied or fearfully) attached partners perpetrate more stalking or UPBs after a breakup (Davis et al. 2000; Dutton and Winstead 2006; Dye and Davis 2003; Kamphuis et al. 2004; Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al. 2000; Wigman et al. 2008;…”

“…behaviours typically used in stalking legislation and research (e.g., Brewster, 2003; Criminal Code [Stalking] Amendment Act 1999 [Queensland]., Davis et al., 2000; Dennison & Stewart, 2006; James & Farnham, 2003; Purcell, Pathe & Mullen, 2000; Sheridan, Davies & Boon, 2001a, 2001b), this…”

“In two studies, Davis and colleagues found that anxious, but not avoidant, attachment was related to unwanted pursuit (Davis et al. 2000; Dye and Davis 2003).”

“For example, their participants were very young (Davis et al., 2000; Dye & Davis, 2003; Katz & Rich, 2015; Logan et al., 2000), none of the studies included measures of impression management, and, with the exception of Katz and Rich (2015), study protocols did not ask participants how long pursuit behaviors were commi…”

“…distress, fear, and physical harm associated with stalking and cyberstalking (Amar, 2006; Blaauw, Winkel, Arensman, Sheridan, & Freeve, 2002; Davis et al., 2000; Dressing et al., 2014; Kuehner, Gass, & Dressing, 2007; Sheridan, Blaauw, & Davies, 2003; Spitzberg, 2002; Westrup, Fremouw,…”

“Likewise, stalking is often precipitated by the threat of partner departure or motivated by the hope to get a partner to return to a dissolved relationship (Blackburn, 1999; Brewster, 2000; Budd & Mattinson, 2000; Coleman, 1999; Davis et al., 2000; Dye & Davis, 2003; Gentile, 2001; Hall, 1997; Kienlen et al., 1997; La…”

“Davis, Ace, and Andra (2000) found that anxious attachment was directly related to the occurrence of unwanted pursuit among rejected partners, and anxious attachment was indirectly related to unwanted pursuit via the mediating variable of anger and jealousy (e.g., “upset at being left”).”

“Another possibility is that undergraduates may tend to have BVelcro^-type relationships (Davis et al. 2000), in which they have a pattern of breaking up and reconciling repeatedly.”

“Insecure attachments have previously been related to the perpetration of stalking (e.g. Derlega et al., 2011; De Smet, Loeys, & Buysse, 2012; Tassy & Winstead, 2014) and the frequency of stalking behaviours (Davis et al., 2000).”

“…a high level of reciprocity of psychological violence among men and women (Black et. al., 2011; Breiding, Chen, Black, 2014; Carney & Barner, 2012; Davis et al., 2000; Follingstad & Edmundson, 2010; Frieze, 2005; Ibrahim & Burczycka, 2016; LaRoche, 2005; McHugh, 2005; Mihorean, 2005; Munoz-Rivas,…”

“Davis et al. (2000) suggest that to understand stalking we need to focus on both the context of the breakup (such as who initiated it) and the personal dispositions of the stalker, particularly those that are related to relationship violence. One dispositional emotion that has not previously been examined in relation…”

“…Relational Pursuit – Pursuer Short Form (Version 2), amended to include some additional behaviours typically used in stalking legislation and research (Davis et al., 2000; Davis & Frieze, 2000; Dennison & Stewart, 2006; Palarea, Zona, Lane & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999; Pathe & Mullen, 1997;…”

“…scene due to the coercively controlling nature of strangulation perpetrators, with victims likely to be fearful and potentially experiencing threats from the perpetrator (Armstrong & Strack, 2016; Davis et al., 2000; Dutton & Goodman, 2005; Nemeth et al., 2012; Stark, 2013; Thomas et al., 2014).”

““Frustration attraction” may have a biological basis that explains why rejection produces more passion (Fisher, 2004), and attempts to reestablish the relationship can intensify into stalking (Davis et al., 2002).”

“There is evidence that controlling tactics during a relationship are positively associated with postseparation harassment in college students (Davis et al., 2000; L. B. Dutton, Winstead, & Mongeau, 2006; Dye & Davis, 2003).”

“…that the relationship between anxious attachment and stalking is moderated by emotional distress, particularly the experience of anger and jealousy (Davis et al., 2000; Dye & Davis, 2003), which is highly consistent with Civilotti and colleagues' qualitative findings in a forensic sample.”

“According to multiple selfreport surveys of pursuers, the most common goal of pursuit is reunification with an ex-partner (Davis and Frieze 2000; Davis et al. 2000; Dennison and Stewart 2006).”

“In addition, studies show a high correlation between stalking, verbal, and physical abuse in intimate relationships (Coleman, 1997; Davis et al., 2000; Logan et al., 2000; McFarlane et al., 1999; Mechanic et al., 2000a; Mechanic et al., 2000b; NIJ Report, 1997; Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000; White et al., 2000) One study…”

“Consistent with previous findings that implicate alcohol use (McEwan, et al., 2007; McEwan et al., 2009) and anger (Davis et al., 2000; Dennison & Stewart, 2006; Patton et al., 2010) in stalking perpetration and a lack of empathy in other aggressive acts (Curwen, 2003; Varker & Devilly, 2007),…”

“Individuals with anxious or fearful attachment have been found to experience intimacy anger (e.g., Davis et al., 2000; Dutton et al., 1994; Dutton, et al., 1996; Follingstad et al., 2002); individuals with BPO have been found to experience hostility and anger (e.g., Dutton, 1994a; Dutton, et al.,…”

“The behaviors were not required to induce victim fear as perpetrators tend to have little insight into the effect of their intrusions on the victim (Davis et al., 2000; LanghinrichsenRohling, Palarea, Cohen, & Rohling, 2000; Sinclair & Frieze, 2005).”

“Both stalking and strangulation are considered methods of coercive control designed to incite fear and limit the victim’s perceived options (Davis et al., 2000; Thomas et al., 2014).”

“…a common motivation for dating abuse in college samples (e.g., Elmquist et al., 2016), it constituted one of the main causes of psychological aggression (Davis et al., 2000) and has recently been found to be positively associated with cyber dating violence perpetration (TopluDemirtaş et al., 2020).”

“…violence (IPV), threats of violence, physical and nonphysical (i.e., emotional, psychological, economic) harm, and homicide (Bjerregaard, 2000; Davis et al., 2000; Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998), there continues to be a tendency among law enforcement professionals to perceive ex-partner stalking as…”

“…review resonates with findings from within the general population—victims often feel anxious, confused, scared, angry, and distrustful of others (Davis et al., 2000; Melton, 2007; Pathé & Mullen, 1997), that they doubt their reactions to stalking behaviors, and feel disempowered (Spitzberg &…”

“The vast majority of studies in the literature contained results that indicated that the entangled or preoccupied state of mind (SoM) with respect to adult attachment is linked most strongly to the adoption of stalking behavior (Cupach & Spitzberg, 2014; Davis et al., 2000; Patton et al., 2010).”

“32–34 However, this is still a relatively nascent area of inquiry and research exploring how IES per-petration is related to relationship functioning is still needed as a first step in developing targeted prevention and intervention efforts.”

“Further, therapists indicated that men were more likely to have longterm reactions of anger and feelings of revenge; this is consistent with the greater likelihood for men to engage in jealous violence and retribution (Davis et al., 2002; Mullen, 1996; White & Mullen, 1989; Wilson & Daly, 1998).”