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Cited by 606Health disparities and outcomesPublic Health and Social InequalitiesPublic Health Policies and Education

Estimated deaths attributable to social factors in the United States

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Galea, Sandro, Tracy, Melissa, Hoggatt, Katherine J., DiMaggio, Charles, Karpati, Adam·2011·American Journal of Public Health
DOI 10.2105/ajph.2010.300086PMC PMC3134519
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Abstract

OBJECTIVES: We estimated the number of deaths attributable to social factors in the United States. METHODS: We conducted a MEDLINE search for all English-language articles published between 1980 and 2007 with estimates of the relation between social factors and adult all-cause mortality. We calculated summary relative risk estimates of mortality, and we obtained and used prevalence estimates for each social factor to calculate the population-attributable fraction for each factor. We then calculated the number of deaths attributable to each social factor in the United States in 2000. RESULTS: Approximately 245,000 deaths in the United States in 2000 were attributable to low education, 176,000 to racial segregation, 162,000 to low social support, 133,000 to individual-level poverty, 119,000 to income inequality, and 39,000 to area-level poverty. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated number of deaths attributable to social factors in the United States is comparable to the number attributed to pathophysiological and behavioral causes. These findings argue for a broader public health conceptualization of the causes of mortality and an expansive policy approach that considers how social factors can be addressed to improve the health of populations.

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  • Stress and negative emotions increase susceptibility to or worsen outcomes from a wide range of physical illnesses.

    “increase susceptibility to or worse outcomes from a wide range of physical illnesses [347–351]”

    From Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications (2012) · cites this paper as [349]

    The Abstract (page not provided) says stress affects immune function, cardiovascular activity, and the progression of existing disease, supporting the stress and worsening-outcomes portion. It does not establish that negative emotions increase susceptibility to a wide range of physical illnesses; the Discussion (page not provided) says stress processes were not directly analyzed. (LLM, conf=0.84)

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  • In the year 2000, compared with those with a high school education or more, failure to complete high school was associated with between 23% and 81% greater likelihood of death per year.

    “It is estimated that in the year 2000, compared with those with a high school education or more, failure to complete high school was associated with between 23% and 81% greater likelihood of death per year Galea, Tracy, Hoggatt, DiMaggio, and Karpati (2011).”

    From Civil rights as determinants of public health and racial and ethnic health equity: Health care, education, employment, and housing in the United States (2018) · cites this paper as Galea, Tracy, Hoggatt, DiMaggio, and Karpati (2011)

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Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. [13]Understanding and Improving Health. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services; 2010 [Google Scholar]
  2. [23]Polednak AP. Segregation, discrimination and mortality in US blacks. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1–2):99–108 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
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Authors
Galea, S., Tracy, M., Hoggatt, K. J., DiMaggio, C., & Karpati, A.
Affiliations
University of Michigan (US)
ORCID
Venue
American Journal of Public Health
Publisher
American Public Health Association
Published
2011-08
Volume
101
Issue
8
Pages
1456-1465
ISSN
  • 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
  • 1541-0048
DOI
10.2105/ajph.2010.300086
PMC
PMC3134519
OpenAlex
W2116769437
Cited by
606
References
85
Citations by year
2026: 18 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 14
FWCI
32.27
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH082729, R01MH078152, MH 082729, MH 078152)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA 017642, DA 022720, R01DA022720, R01DA017642, DA 022720-S1)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
  • Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Public Health Policies and Education
Keywords
social determinants of health, all-cause mortality, attributable mortality, low educational attainment, racial segregation, social support, income inequality, population attributable fraction, United States
MeSH terms
Adult, Aged, Cause of Death, Educational Status, Humans, Middle Aged, Mortality, Poverty, Prejudice, Risk, Social Class, Social Support, Socioeconomic Factors, United States

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