Linear and Non-Linear Effects of Infrastructures on Inclusive Human Development in Africa
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The objectives of this paper are to verify the linear and the non-linear effects of infrastructural development on inclusive human development in Africa. The results of the system GMM estimations show a positive effect of infrastructural development on inclusive development across all the infrastructural development indexes employed, except the ICT infrastructural composite index which presents an insignificant negative effect. Besides, a non-linear effect of infrastructures on inclusive development was established across all the infrastructure indicators except for the ICT indicator. Negative thresholds for complementary policies are established for the African Infrastructure Development Index (AIDI) and the transport index while positive thresholds are apparent for the electricity index and the water and sanitation infrastructure index (WSS). Accordingly, in order to sustain the positive incidence of the AIDI and transport index on human development, complementary policies should be engaged to avoid an overall negative effect on human development when the indexes are respectively, 31.12% and 25.56%. In the same vein, the electricity index and WSSI should exceed critical levels of respectively 49.79% and 41.92%, to engender an overall positive effect on inclusive human development.
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All explanatory variables are considered as potential sources of endogeneity.
“Based on contemporary literature (Asongu and Nwachukwu, 2016;Asongu and Leke, 2019;Nchofoung et al., 2021), all our explanatory variables are considered as potential sources of endogeneity.”
From Financial development and human capital thresholds for the infrastructure development-industrialization nexus in Africa (2023) · cites this paper as Nchofoung et al., 2021
The second lags of the explanatory variables are used as instruments in both the level and difference equations.
“The second lags of the explanatory variables are used as instruments in both the level and difference equations.”
From Financial development and human capital thresholds for the infrastructure development-industrialization nexus in Africa (2023) · cites this paper as Nchofoung et al., 2021
Section 3.2 (p. 10) describes the GMM method and says period dummies are used as instruments, but it does not specify second lags as instruments in both level and difference equations. Searches for the quoted wording and for second-lag instruments found no such statement; the estimation equations in our copy are not decoded. (LLM, conf=0.69)
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Self-citationThe terrorism-finance nexus contingent on globalisation and governance dynamics in Africa
Asongu, S. A., & Nchofoung, T. N. (2025) · International Economics · doi:10.1016/j.inteco.2025.100622 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationLuan, Y., Guan, Q. T., & Ketu, I. (2026) · Sustainable Development · doi:10.1002/sd.70640 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Marriage as an Argument for Energy Poverty Reduction: The Moderating Role of Financial Inclusion
Asongu, S. A., Ogbonna, A. O., & Mete, M. C. N. (2024) · Diversity & Inclusion Research · doi:10.1002/dvr2.70001 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationAsongu, S. A., & Eita, J. H. (2023) · Journal of Applied Social Science · doi:10.1177/19367244231209279 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationAsongu, S. A., Njangang, H., Nchofoung, T. N., & Diop, S. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2080376/v1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationAsongu, S. A. (2023) · Social Responsibility Journal · doi:10.1108/srj-05-2023-0280 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationAsongu, S. A., & Abdramane, C. (2025) · Sustainable Development · doi:10.1002/sd.70097 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationEmeka, E. T., Asongu, S. A., & Ajah, A. C. (2025) · Thunderbird International Business Review · doi:10.1002/tie.70047 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationHUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNANCE IN AFRICA
Asongu, S. A., Diop, S., & Nnanna, J. (2022) · World Affairs · doi:10.1177/00438200221133833 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationBusiness Constraints, Information Technology and Income Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa
Bouanza, J. R. F. K., Asongu, S. A., & Nnanna, J. (2024) · The Journal of Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1177/09713557241306884 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationFinancial Inclusion, Inequality and Women in Politics and Business
Asongu, S. A., & Zogo, T. E. (2025) · International Journal of Public Administration · doi:10.1080/01900692.2024.2440742 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationTourism, ICT and Inclusive Development: Global EvidencePreprint
Nchofoung, T. N., Asongu, S. A., & Tchamyou, V. S. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4135447 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationPolitical Leadership and Economic Complexity in Africa
Avom, D., Asongu, S. A., Abdramane, C., & Yazid, H. S. (2025) · African Development Review · doi:10.1111/1467-8268.70021 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationNatural Resources Rent Dependency and Macroeconomic Instability in Africa
Kouladoum, J. M., Bidzo, M. M., Fils, E. N., & ESSOVA, L. G. K. (2025) · Sustainable Development · doi:10.1002/sd.70351 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Infrastructure adequacy for electricity trading in East Africa
Rubanda, M. E., Senyonga, L., Ngoma, M., & Adaramola, M. S. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.109554 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Clovis, M. W., Kakeu, C. B. P., & D.Elvis, A. (2025) · Community Development · doi:10.1080/15575330.2025.2460755 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Financing options for infrastructure and life ladder in Africa
Nguepi, N. D., Meytang, C., Tchoffo, R. N., & Nkemgha, G. Z. (2025) · Discover Cities · doi:10.1007/s44327-025-00068-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Political inclusion and democracy in Africa: some empirical evidencePreprint
Nchofoung, T. N., Asongu, S. A., Tchamyou, V. S., & Edoh, O. M. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3988957 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationTelecommunications Regulation, Mobile Money Innovations and Financial InclusionPreprint
Asongu, S. (2023) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4416842 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationBusiness processes and environmental sustainability
Achuo, E. D., & Asongu, S. A. (2025) · International Journal of Social Economics · doi:10.1108/ijse-11-2024-0915 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the path to sustainable development: insurance, a crutch for the economies of sub-Saharan Africa?
Meytang, C., Nkemgha, G. Z., & Fils, L. R. N. (2025) · Review of World Economics · doi:10.1007/s10290-025-00614-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aidoo, S. K., & Makoni, P. L. (2026) · Journal of Critical Infrastructure Policy · doi:10.1002/jci3.70018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Yuan, L., Ibrahim, R. L., & Alomair, A. (2026) · African Development Review · doi:10.1111/1467-8268.70056 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Emeka, E. T. (2026) · South African Journal of Economics · doi:10.1111/saje.70027 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Building Resilience Through Insurance: Implications for Inclusive Human Development
Ketu, I. (2026) · Sustainable Development · doi:10.1002/sd.71377 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Macroeconomic Volatility and Inclusive Sustainable Development in Africa
Xie, B., Ajide, K. B., & Agbetoye, O. (2026) · African Development Review · doi:10.1111/1467-8268.70073 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Governance and innovation: positive drivers of Africa’s economic performance
Emeka, E. T., & Asongu, S. A. (2026) · Economic Change and Restructuring · doi:10.1007/s10644-026-10065-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationGender Analysis of Labor Force Outcomes: Evidence from CameroonPreprint
Kouam, J., Asongu, S. A., Nantchouang, R., & Foretia, D. A. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4243844 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAsongu, S. A., & Odhiambo, N. M. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4454038
Self-citationGender analysis of labour force outcomes: Evidence from Cameroon
Kouam, J., Asongu, S. A., Nantchouang, R., & Foretia, D. A. (2023) · Development Southern Africa · doi:10.1080/0376835x.2023.2231025
Self-citationA study of the resources-for-infrastructure agreements in oil-rich markets
Oluyeju, M. I., & Oluyeju, O. (2023) · Journal of Governance and Regulation · doi:10.22495/jgrv12i3siart13
Mbouayila, F. M. T. (2023) · Revue d économie financière · doi:10.3917/ecofi.151.0345
Contribution of Agricultural Productivity to Industrialization in Africa
Anchi, O. E., Nulambeh, N. A., & Edoh, O. M. (2023) · Finance & Economics Review · doi:10.38157/fer.v5i2.586
Asongu, S. A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4644849
Self-citationRandy, M. R. S. (2025) · Jurnal Penelitian Sekolah Tinggi Transportasi Darat · doi:10.55511/jpsttd.v16i1.718
The Digital Divide and the Financial Inclusion of Women: Evidence From African Countries
Asaloko, P. P., & Ndjokou, I. M. M. M. (2025) · Economic Notes · doi:10.1111/ecno.70013 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nchofoung, T., Asongu, S., Njamen Kengdo, A., & Achuo, E.
- Affiliations
- Université de Dschang (CM)
- University of Johannesburg (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Asongu, Simplice
- Venue
- African Development Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 81-96
- ISSN
- 1017-6772 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3173297531
- Cited by
- 113
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 23.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- African Development Review (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Munich Personal RePEc Archive (Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich) (submittedVersion)
- Econstor (Econstor) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Economic Growth and Development
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Fiscal Policy and Economic Growth
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Growth and Productivity
- Keywords
- infrastructure development, inclusive human development, nonlinear effects, threshold effects, transport infrastructure, electricity access, water and sanitation, information and communication technologies, complementary policies, Africa
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