Techno-Economic Analysis of Lithium Extraction from Geothermal Brines

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There have been few pilot-scale field tests focused on extraction of lithium from geothermal brines.

“Mineral extraction from geothermal brines in the Salton Sea and elsewhere has a decades-long history, but there have been few pilot-scale field tests focused on extraction of lithium from geothermal brines.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There are limited publicly available cost and performance data to fully evaluate the techno-economics of lithium extraction from geothermal brine.

“There are also limited publicly available cost and performance data to fully evaluate the techno-economics of lithium extraction from geothermal brine.”

May combine two claims.

The United States has a large domestic source of lithium in geothermal fluids, especially at the Salton Sea region of southern California, where estimated lithium pass-through at geothermal plants exceeds 24,000 metric tons per year based on 2019 geothermal plant operations, convertible to nearly 127,000 mt of lithium carbonate.

“The United States has a large, domestic source of lithium in geothermal fluids, especially at the Salton Sea region of southern California, where estimates of lithium pass-through at geothermal plants exceed 24,000 metric tons per year, based on 2019 geothermal plant operations.”

• Also stated in: § 1.1 Project Motivation and Goals · hedged

  “This represents an estimated annual lithium throughput of approximately 24,000 mt that can be converted to nearly 127,000 mt of lithium carbonate.”

• cites CalGEM 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites McKibben and Hardie 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Recent and ongoing lab studies on direct lithium extraction from brines have focused largely on sorbent and solvent performance, with goals to increase lithium selectivity relative to competing ions, increase operating cycles between regeneration and replacement, and lower costs of sorbent and solvent manufacturing.

“Recent and ongoing lab studies on direct lithium extraction (DLE) from brines have focused largely on sorbent and solvent performance, with goals to increase lithium selectivity relative to competing ions, increase operating cycles between regeneration and replacement, and lower costs of sorbent and solvent manufacturing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some DLE projects report detailed operating expenses (OPEX).

“Some of the DLE projects (Table 3; Appendix A) report detailed operating expenses (OPEX).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Available data and estimates of costs for lithium extraction from geothermal brines are limited.

“Available data and estimates of costs for lithium extraction from geothermal brines are limited”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Salton Sea plant operators have decades of experience managing pre-processing to enable power generation and post-processing to prevent scaling of injection wells.

“Salton Sea plant operators have decades of experience managing pre-processing to enable power generation and post-processing to prevent scaling of injection wells.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Materials and infrastructure are already in place at Salton Sea geothermal power plants if scale inhibition processes are required.

“Materials and infrastructure are already in place at Salton Sea geothermal power plants if scale inhibition processes are required.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Materials and infrastructure are already in place at Salton Sea geothermal power plants if scale inhibition processes are required.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Salton Sea geothermal power plants had throughput in 2019 equivalent to 127,750 mt LCE (121,308,148 mt with average lithium concentration of 200 mg/L).

“Salton Sea geothermal power plants had throughput in 2019 equivalent to 127,750 mt LCE (121,308,148 mt with average lithium concentration of 200 mg/L).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is no detailed public information regarding modification of fluid after lithium extraction and prior to injection.

“There is no detailed public information regarding modification of fluid after lithium extraction and prior to injection.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Detailed U.S. patent documents describe in detail the process proposed by EnergySource.

“detailed U.S. patent documents (e.g., Marston and Garska 2019) describe in detail the process proposed by EnergySource.”

• cites Marston and Garska 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The feedstock for lithium extraction comes from downstream of the secondary clarifier.

“The feedstock for lithium extraction comes from downstream of the secondary clarifier.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

EnergySource and Berkshire Hathaway have operating power plants at the Salton Sea and are planning lithium extraction demonstrations.

“EnergySource and Berkshire Hathaway have operating power plants at the Salton Sea and are planning lithium extraction demonstrations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Multiple companies are pursuing DLE projects focused on geothermal and other brines; most important demonstrations for U.S. lithium production are focused on Salton Sea brines.

“Multiple companies are pursuing DLE projects focused on geothermal and other brines (e.g., Table 3); however, the most important demonstrations for U.S. lithium production are focused on Salton Sea brines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pilot testing demonstrated monovalent and divalent removal >99.5% and lithium recovery >90%.

“Pilot testing demonstrated monovalent and divalent removal >99.5% and lithium recovery >90% (Figure 7).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

EnergySource has reported successful completion of pilot testing of its patented ILiAD technology.

“They have reported successful completion of pilot testing of their patented Integrated Lithium Adsorption Desorption (ILiAD) technology, which combines lithiumselective sorbent with continuous bed processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The demonstration facility will be sited at an existing geothermal power plant, with the project managed by BHER Minerals.

“The demonstration facility will be sited at an existing geothermal power plant, with the project managed by BHER Minerals (wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway Energy).”

• cites BHER Minerals 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Bench column experiments with LDH have shown high selectivity for lithium relative to competing ions, and LDH sorbents are low cost and environmentally benign without consuming reagent chemicals or producing secondary waste.

“Bench column experiments with LDH have shown high selectivity for lithium relative to competing ions, and LDH sorbents are low cost and environmentally benign without consuming reagent chemicals or producing secondary waste.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Other Li-Mn-O and Li-Ti-O chemistries have been explored with positive results.

“Other Li-Mn-O and Li-Ti-O chemistries have been explored with positive results.”

May combine two claims.

LDHs have slightly lower capacity but good selectivity, are relatively inexpensive to regenerate, and are stable through many cycles.

“LDHs have slightly lower capacity but good selectivity, are relatively inexpensive to regenerate, and are stable through many cycles.”

May combine two claims.

There is no single model to apply to all geothermal brines or even to different brine and power plant operations in the Salton Sea KGRA.

“there is no single model to apply to all geothermal brines or even to different brine and power plant operations in the Salton Sea KGRA.”

May combine two claims.

The treated brine contained 319 mg/L Li, 77,173 mg/L Na, 27,409 mg/L K, 42,831 mg/L Ca, and 694 mg/L Sr.

“the treated brine contained 319 mg/L Li, 77,173 mg/L Na, 27,409 mg/L K, 42,831 mg/L Ca, and 694 mg/L Sr”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Chromatography is a proven technology in industrial applications for chemical separations, and researchers at NREL have recently begun investigating application of simulated moving bed chromatography to extraction of lithium and other materials from brines.

“Chromatography is a proven technology in industrial applications for chemical separations, and researchers at NREL have recently begun investigating application of simulated moving bed chromatography to extraction of lithium and other materials from brines (Karp 2019).”

• cites Karp 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Established commercial solvent extraction expertise is being directed toward advancing the technique's application to lithium extraction from brines.

“Established commercial solvent extraction expertise (e.g., Tenova) is also being directed toward advancing the technique's application to lithium extraction from brines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

During pilot testing at the Elmore and Featherstone power plants, more than 93% of silica and 98% percent of Fe (II) were removed as filter cake.

“During pilot testing at the Elmore and Featherstone power plants, more than 93% of silica and 98% percent of Fe (II) were removed as filter cake.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Removal of 95% of arsenic was achieved by oxidizing 20%-30% of the iron between pH values of 3 and 4 before precipitation of silica-iron filter cake.

“Importantly, removal of 95% of arsenic was achieved by oxidizing 20%-30% of the iron between pH values of 3 and 4 before precipitation of silica-iron filter cake.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

U.S. lithium consumption from 2015 through 2019 is estimated to be 2,000-3,000 mt per year, convertible to nearly 16,000 mt of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE).

“This is significant-U.S. lithium consumption from 2015 through 2019 is estimated to be 2,000-3,000 mt per year, which can be converted to nearly 16,000 mt of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) (Jaskula 2020).”

• cites Jaskula 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

From 2015-2019, U.S. net import reliance as a percentage of estimated consumption was typically >50%, with imports primarily from Argentina (53%), Chile (40%), and China (3%).

“From 2015-2019, net import reliance as a percentage of estimated consumption was typically >50%, with imports primarily coming from Argentina (53%), Chile (40%), and China (3%).”

• cites Jaskula 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2018, estimated lithium extraction and processing from evaporation ponds and hardrock leaching made up approximately 46% and 54%, respectively, of the current economically profitable lithium production methods.

“In 2018, estimated lithium extraction and processing from evaporation ponds and hardrock leaching made up approximately 46% and 54%, respectively, of the current economically profitable lithium production methods (Facada 2019).”

• cites Facada 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Use of direct extraction technologies allows for a more sustainable lithium supply relative to current evaporative brine and hardrock mining operations in terms of land use, water use, time to market with lithium products, and carbon intensity of operations.

“Additionally, the use of direct extraction technologies allows for a more sustainable lithium supply relative to current evaporative brine and hardrock mining operations in terms of land use, water use, time to market with lithium products, and carbon intensity of operations.”

• Also stated in: § 2.3 Other Methods of Lithium Extraction · plain

  “DLE technologies can be added to existing geothermal power plants or built into the design of future plants and have distinct advantages over evaporative ponds and hardrock mining with respect to sustainability related to land use, water use, time to market with lithium products, and carbon intensity of operations.”

May combine two claims.

The latest U.S. Geological Survey's Mineral Commodities Summary estimates that 65% of lithium end use globally is for lithium-ion batteries, and this market is expected to grow rapidly in coming years.

“The latest U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS) Mineral Commodities Summary (Jaskula 2020) estimates that 65% of the lithium end use globally is for lithium-ion batteries, and this market is expected to grow rapidly in coming years.”

• cites Jaskula 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many techniques and process strategies proposed to extract lithium directly from geothermal and other brines can be generally categorized into adsorption, ion exchange, and solvent extraction techniques.

“Many techniques and process strategies have been proposed to extract lithium directly from geothermal and other brines, and these can be generally categorized into adsorption, ion exchange, and solvent extraction techniques.”

• Also stated in: § 2.3 Other Methods of Lithium Extraction · plain

  “DLE technologies can be broadly grouped into three main categories: adsorption, ion exchange, and solvent extraction.”

May combine two claims.

Since mid-2018, lithium carbonate spot market prices have ranged from approximately $20,000/mt to $7,500/mt and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from $21,000/mt to $10,000/mt.

“For comparison, market prices since mid-2018 have ranged from approximately $20,000/mt to $7,500/mt LCE.”

• Also stated in: § 2 Lithium Extraction Technology · plain

  “Since mid-2018, lithium carbonate spot market prices have ranged from approximately $20,000/mt to $7,500/mt and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from $21,000/mt to $10,000/mt (Fastmarkets, 2021) with lowest prices coming during the COVID-19-related, global economic downturn and reduction in demand.”

• cites Fastmarkets, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Less than 1% of geothermal fluid samples from primarily the western United States have lithium concentrations >20 mg/kg, and the highest concentrations are from the Salton Sea, with values up to 400 mg/kg.

“Notably, less than 1% of samples have lithium concentrations >20 mg/kg, and the highest concentrations are from the Salton Sea, with values up to 400 mg/kg.”

• cites Neupane and Wendt (2017)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Improved performance of sorbents and solvents will be primary drivers of future cost reductions and improved economics for lithium extraction from geothermal brines.

“Improved performance of sorbent and solvents will be primary drivers of future cost reductions and improved economics for lithium extraction from geothermal brines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Ultimately, a specific geothermal fluid will require a best-fit lithium extraction process, or combination of processes, based on fluid composition and physical and chemical requirements related to power generation and reservoir management.

“Ultimately, a specific geothermal fluid will require a best-fit lithium extraction process, or combination of processes, based on fluid composition and physical and chemical requirements related to power generation and reservoir management.”

May combine two claims.

Some oilfield and evaporite brine projects have advanced to pilot scale and provide confidence in the technical feasibility of DLE.

“Some of the oilfield and evaporite brine projects have advanced to pilot scale and provide confidence in the technical feasibility of DLE”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bench-scale studies of sorbents and Upper Rhine Valley geothermal fluid indicate potential to extract >90% of lithium from brine containing 181 mg/kg lithium.

“bench-scale studies of sorbents and Upper Rhine Valley geothermal fluid indicate the potential to extract >90% of lithium from brine containing 181 mg/kg lithium (Vulcan Energy Resources 2020).”

• cites Vulcan Energy Resources 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Renew and Hansen (2017) performed a techno-economic analysis that suggested their lithium extraction process would not be economically viable, particularly with respect to Li concentration (150 mg/L) and Li2CO3 ($20,000/mt) price sensitivity used in their study.

“Renew and Hansen (2017) performed a techno-economic analysis that suggested the process would not be economically viable, particularly with respect to Li concentration (150 mg/L) and Li2CO3 ($20,000/mt) price sensitivity used in their study.”

• cites Renew and Hansen (2017)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Optimal lithium recovery parameters will vary based on the specific physical and chemical properties of target geothermal fluids.

“An important lesson for lithium extraction was noted by the authors-optimal lithium recovery parameters will vary based on the specific physical and chemical properties of target geothermal fluids.”

• cites Berthold and Baker (1976)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Higher lithium concentrations (300 mg/L), higher Li2CO3 prices ($28,000/mt), or reduced capital costs (-27%) potentially could support project economics for the Renew and Hansen process.

“Higher concentrations (300 mg/L), higher prices ($28,000/mt), or reduced capital costs (-27%) potentially could support project economics.”

• cites Renew and Hansen (2017)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

The quote only partly states this claim.

Optimal lithium recovery (>98%) from post-flash Salton Sea brine was achieved with Al/Li ratios of 3/1, pH 7.5, and temperature 75°-85°C.

“Optimal lithium recovery (>98%) was achieved with Al/Li ratios of 3/1, pH 7.5, and temperature 75°-85°C.”

• cites Berthold and Baker (1976)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Schultze and Bauer (1984) described one of the earliest processes considered economic for recovery of lithium from geothermal brines at the Salton Sea, with recovery of 99% of lithium as LiCl.

“Schultze and Bauer (1984) described one of the earliest processes considered economic for recovery of lithium from geothermal brines at the Salton Sea, with recovery of 99% of lithium as LiCl (Figure 3).”

• cites Schultze and Bauer (1984)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The tail fluid will be cooler than the normal injection stream, and this could potentially affect reservoir temperatures if large volumes of cooled, post-lithium-extraction fluid are injected for many years.

“The tail fluid will be cooler than the normal injection stream, and this could potentially affect reservoir temperatures if large volumes of cooled, post-lithium-extraction fluid are injected for many years.”

May combine two claims.

A projected Li2CO3 price of $12,000/mt suggests a cost near $4,000/mt LCE for planned production of 16,500 mt LCE per year.

“projected Li2CO3 price of $12,000/mt, suggests a cost near $4,000/mt LCE for planned production of 16,500 mt LCE per year (EnergySource 2021).”

• cites EnergySource 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Power generation processes can benefit lithium extraction with the potential to provide power, heat, and water for downstream operations.

“Power generation processes can benefit lithium extraction with the potential to provide power, heat, and water for downstream operations.”

May combine two claims.

The primary differences between non-geothermal brine processes and those applied to geothermal brine at the Salton Sea are required pre-processing to manage silica, iron and other metals and, if required, post-processing to ensure appropriate physical and chemical properties of injected tail brine.

“Generally, the primary differences between non-geothermal brine processes and those applied to geothermal brine at the Salton Sea are required pre-processing to manage silica, iron and other metals and, if required, post-processing to ensure appropriate physical and chemical properties of injected tail brine”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Geothermal brines have unique brine pre-treatments required for power generation, and the power generation process influences the physical and chemical properties of injection fluid that is the source brine for lithium extraction.

“Geothermal brines also have unique brine pre-treatments required for power generation, and the power generation process influences the physical and chemical properties of injection fluid that is the source brine for lithium extraction operations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Each project has unique physical, chemical, and economic requirements that help determine the optimized DLE process.

“Each project has unique physical, chemical, and economic requirements that help determine the optimized DLE process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Lithium extraction benefits from crystallizer and clarifier processes to remove silica and iron as pre-treatment for the power generation process.

“Lithium extraction benefits from crystallizer and clarifier processes to remove silica and iron as pre-treatment for the power generation process.”

May combine two claims.

Other processes commercialized at the Salton Sea will vary in design but share many of the same process steps and likely have costs near $4,000/mt LCE.

“Though other processes that might be commercialized at the Salton Sea will vary in design (e.g., BHER Minerals 2020), they will share many of the same process steps and likely have costs near $4,000/mt LCE.”

• cites BHER Minerals 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Li2TiO3 is the precursor for hydrated titanium oxide (H2TiO3) sorbent, which has high lithium capacity and selectivity, despite studies documenting some co-adsorbed sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium at non-negligible levels.

“Li2TiO3) is the precursor for hydrated titanium oxide (H2TiO3) sorbent, which has high lithium capacity and selectivity, despite studies that document some co-adsorbed sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium at non-negligible levels (Chitrakar et al. 2014).”

• cites Chitrakar et al. 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

EnergySource is planning to build a lithium extraction facility at its Featherstone power plant, with construction starting in 2021 and operations beginning in 2023.

“EnergySource is planning to build a lithium extraction facility at their Featherstone power plant, with construction starting in 2021 and operations beginning in 2023 (EnergySource 2021).”

• cites EnergySource 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Robust modeling of lithium extraction from geothermal brines requires explicit process details, many of which are proprietary.

“robust modeling of lithium extraction from geothermal brines requires explicit process details, many of which are proprietary.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stringfellow and Dobson (2021) note that large-scale, expensive demonstration projects are necessary to advance lithium extraction from geothermal brines toward commercialization.

“They also note that large-scale, expensive demonstration projects are necessary to advance lithium extraction from geothermal brines toward commercialization”

• cites Stringfellow and Dobson (2021)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These prices are within the range of spot market prices since mid-2018.

“These prices are within the range of spot market prices since mid-2018”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Stringfellow and Dobson (2021) report that lithium extraction with inorganic molecular sieve ion-exchange sorbents is the most developed technology and note that sorbent selectivity, sorbent tolerance for interfering ions, and purity of extracted lithium are the main cost drivers.

“Stringfellow and Dobson (2021) report that lithium extraction with inorganic molecular sieve ion-exchange sorbents is the most developed technology and note that sorbent selectivity, sorbent tolerance for interfering ions, and purity of extracted lithium are the main cost drivers.”

• cites Stringfellow and Dobson (2021)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Paranthanam et al. (2017) reported that further improvements can be made in the quality of sorbent materials related to recovery efficiency, lithium capacity, selectivity relative to other competing bulk ions, and stability.

“Paranthanam et al. (2017) reported that further improvements can be made in the quality of sorbent materials related to recovery efficiency, lithium capacity, selectivity relative to other competing bulk ions, and stability.”

• cites Paranthanam et al. (2017)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Increased lithium demand is expected in the future.

“increased lithium demand is expected in the future (Chao 2020).”

• cites Chao 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The most recent review of lithium extraction techniques is by Stringfellow and Dobson (2021), which provides descriptions and extensive documentation of methods being investigated by researchers.

“The most recent review of lithium extraction techniques is by Stringfellow and Dobson (2021), which provides descriptions and extensive documentation of methods being investigated by researchers (Table 8).”

• cites Stringfellow and Dobson (2021)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The application of ionic liquids for solvent extraction shows promise for developing high-lithium-affinity and highly efficient extraction processes.

“The application of ionic liquids for solvent extraction shows promise for developing highlithium-affinity and highly efficient extraction processes (Yang et al. 2019).”

• cites Yang et al. 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Because of the high concentration of lithium, Salton Sea geothermal brines are an obvious target for DLE.

“Because of the high concentration of lithium, Salton Sea geothermal brines are an obvious target for DLE.”

May combine two claims.

The need for DLE process power and water is mitigated by the availability of on-site geothermal power, heat, and water, giving geothermal sites a potential advantage over other DLE brine targets.

“Need for DLE process power and water is mitigated by the availability of on-site geothermal power, heat, and water (RO-processed condensate).This gives geothermal sites a potential advantage over other DLE brine targets.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In addition to lithium, other valuable minerals could potentially be extracted from geothermal brines.

“In addition to lithium, other valuable minerals could potentially be extracted from geothermal brines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Stoichiometries of chemical reactions and combinations of reactions guide the application of DLE in terms of reagent and materials costs.

“Stoichiometries of chemical reactions and combinations of reactions guide the application of DLE in terms of reagent and materials costs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If inexpensive and sustainable chemistries can be developed, solvent extraction may be particularly suitable for geothermal brines with modest lithium concentrations.

“If inexpensive and sustainable chemistries can be developed, solvent extraction may be particularly suitable for geothermal brines with modest lithium concentrations (e.g., most brines outside the Salton Sea).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Lithium extraction from Salton Sea brines will benefit from cost reductions associated with increased sorbent selectivity for lithium with respect to competing ions and from decreased pre-treatment requirements.

“Lithium extraction from Salton Sea brines will benefit from cost reductions associated with increased sorbent selectivity for lithium with respect to competing ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium and from decreased pre-treatment requirements.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An alternative to HCl for sorbent regeneration is important in order to minimize deleterious effects on the hydrated manganese oxide caused by Mn solubility in HCl.

“An alternative to HCl for sorbent regeneration was deemed important to minimize deleterious effects on the hydrated manganese oxide due to Mn solubility in HCl.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Fracture controlled permeability and hydrothermal alteration potentially limit injectate's contact with lithium-rich rocks.

“Fracture controlled permeability and hydrothermal alteration potentially limit injectate's contact with lithium-rich rocks (e.g., silicified selvages to permeable fractures).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Diversity of fluid physical and chemical properties and variations in operational conditions require lithium extraction processes to be uniquely tailored to the target geothermal reservoir and power plant.

“Diversity of fluid physical and chemical properties and variations in operational conditions (e.g., plant rejection temperature) require lithium extraction processes to be uniquely tailored to the target geothermal reservoir and power plant.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Anson Resources Paradox Basin project is located in Utah and consists of three phases of development.

“Anson Resources Paradox Basin project is located in Utah and consists of three phases of development (Anson Resources 2020).”

• cites Anson Resources 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Alsace, France, geothermal fluids have measured temperatures up to 205°C and lithium concentrations up to 162 mg/L.

“In Alsace, France, geothermal fluids have measured temperatures up to 205°C and lithium concentrations up to 162 mg/L(Sanjuan et al. 2020).”

• cites Sanjuan et al. 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Upper Rhine Valley brines most amenable to lithium extraction have chemistries of approximately 150-200 mg/kg lithium, 30,000 mg/kg sodium, 2,000 mg/kg potassium, 6,000 mg/kg calcium, and 400 mg/kg magnesium, from reservoirs measured up to 200°C with geothermometry indicating 225°C.

“Upper Rhine Valley brines most amenable to lithium extraction have chemistries approximately 150-200 mg/kg lithium, 30,000 mg/kg sodium, 2,000 mg/kg potassium, 6,000 mg/kg calcium, and 400 mg/kg magnesium from reservoirs measured up to 200°C and with geothermometry indicating 225°C (Sanjuan et al. 2016).”

• cites Sanjuan et al. 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pure Energy Minerals' Clayton Valley project brines contain up to 221 mg/L lithium and comprise a resource of 247,000 mt of lithium hydroxide monohydrate in saturated basin sediments from ~150-1,000 m below surface.

“Pure Energy Minerals Clayton Valley project is in Nevada where they plan to produce 11,500 mt per year of lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LiOH•H2O; LHM) from brines containing up to 221 mg/L lithium that comprise a resource of 247,000 mt of LHM in saturated basin sediments from ~150-1,000 m below surface.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The tail brine contains an average lithium concentration of 168 mg/L, and the brine resource contains 3,140,000 mt LCE.

“The tail brine contains an average lithium concentration of 168 mg/L, and the brine resource contains 3,140,000 mt LCE.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The bromine-lithium brine is hosted in sedimentary units ~1,900 m below surface that are intersected by historic hydrocarbon wells.

“The bromine-lithium brine is hosted in sedimentary units ~1,900 m below surface that are intersected by historic hydrocarbon wells.”

• cites Anson Resources 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Lake Resources' Kachi project salar brine indicated resource comprises 1 million tons LCE with a concentration of 250 mg/L lithium contained in saturated sediments that extend to 880 m below surface.

“The salar brine indicated resource comprises 1 million tons LCE with a concentration of 250 mg/L lithium contained in saturated sediments that extend to 880 m below surface.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The information about Anson Resources' proposed lithium extraction process and estimates of costs remain valid, separate from the issue of overall project viability.

“Despite that, the information about the proposed lithium extraction process and estimates of costs remain valid, separate from the issue of overall project viability.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The PEA for Anson Resources' Phase 3 was retracted soon after it was released because of its significant reliance on inferred resources.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tenova's novel extraction process for the Clayton Valley project was confirmed with a mini-pilot test using a synthetic brine matched to the physical and chemical properties of naturally occurring Clayton Valley brines.

“Tenova has developed a novel extraction process that was confirmed with a mini-pilot test using a synthetic brine to match the physical and chemical properties of naturally occurring Clayton Valley brines.”

May combine two claims.

Upper Rhine Valley geothermal fluids have measured temperatures up to 200°C and lithium concentrations up to 210 mg/L.

“Upper Rhine Valley geothermal fluids have measured temperatures up to 200°C and lithium concentrations up to 210 mg/L(Sanjuan et al. 2016).”

• cites Sanjuan et al. 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Standard Lithium began testing a lithium extraction demonstration plant in late 2020 using the tail brine from Lanxess bromine extraction operations in Arkansas, and they plan to scale up to a 20,900 mt/yr commercial operation.

“Standard Lithium began testing a lithium extraction demonstration plant in late 2020 using the tail brine from Lanxess bromine extraction operations in Arkansas, and they plan to scale up to a 20,900 mt/yr commercial operation.”

• cites Standard Lithium (2019)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In late 2020 Standard Lithium produced concentrated LiCl solution from their demonstration plant in Arkansas, processing 50 gpm of brine from the Lanxess South Plant.

“In late 2020, Standard Lithium announced that they had successfully produced concentrated LiCl solution from their demonstration plant in Arkansas operating under optimized and refined processes summarized above and processing 50 gpm of brine from the Lanxess South Plant.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Extraction from less lithium-rich brines has also been studied at Wairakei, New Zealand, where lithium concentrations are only ~13 mg/L.

“Extraction from less lithium-rich brines has also been studied at Wairakei, New Zealand, where lithium concentrations are only ~13 mg/L(Mroczek et al. 2015).”

• cites Mroczek et al. 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

E3 Metals' oilfield brine of the Leduc Formation in Alberta, Canada has an average lithium concentration of 74.6 mg/L with a resource estimated at 2.2 million mt LCE.

“The average lithium concentration is 74.6 mg/L with a resource estimated at 2.2 million mt LCE.”

May combine two claims.

Other processes that might be commercialized at the Salton Sea will vary in design but will share many of the same process steps and likely have costs near $4,000/mt LCE.

“Though other processes that might be commercialized at the Salton Sea will vary in design (e.g., BHER Minerals 2020), they will share many of the same process steps and likely have costs near $4,000/mt LCE.”

• cites BHER Minerals 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The purified brine, containing mostly Li + , K + and Na + cations, is suitable for electrolysis and crystallization to form LiOH•H2O, while water removed from the brine prior to electrolysis can be used as make-up water for lithium processing.

“The purified brine, containing mostly Li + , K + and Na + cations, is suitable for electrolysis and crystallization to form LiOH•H2O, while water removed from the brine prior to electrolysis can be used as make-up water for lithium processing.”

• cites E3 Metals Corp. (2020)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Silica removal via sorbents was problematic due to required large volumes of stripping solution and degradation of the sorbents.

“Silica removal via sorbents was problematic due to required large volumes of stripping solution and degradation of the sorbents.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The brine is estimated to contain 192,000 mt LCE with lithium concentrations up to 253 mg/L.

“The brine is estimated to contain 192,000 mt LCE with lithium concentrations up to 253 mg/L.”

• cites Anson Resources 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The sorbent chosen for development to commercial scale exhibited high capacity, low affinity for impurities, and production via a simple two-step process.

“The sorbent chosen for development to commercial scale exhibited high capacity, low affinity for impurities, and production via a simple two-step process.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main process steps for lithium extraction were demonstrated at pilot scale: silica management, lithium extraction, purification, concentration, and conversion into lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate products.

“The main process steps for lithium extraction were demonstrated at pilot scale: (1) silica management; ( 2) lithium extraction; (3) purification; (4) concentration; and (5) conversion into lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate products.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Simbol focused on the recovery of lithium manganese, zinc, and potassium from pre-injection brines at the Elmore (CalEnergy) and Featherstone (EnergySource) power plants.

“Simbol focused on the recovery of lithium manganese, zinc, and potassium from pre-injection brines at the Elmore (CalEnergy) and Featherstone (EnergySource) power plants.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Of the two novel processes, silica removal via sorbent was deemed less costly and potentially economical for polishing solutions with low silica concentrations.

“Of the two novel processes, silica removal via sorbent was deemed less costly and potentially economical for polishing solutions with low silica concentrations (Harrison 2014).”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Silica removal using precipitants was problematic due to required large caustic volumes to maintain pH at optimal levels and, for some precipitants, lithium was also extracted.

“Silica removal using precipitants was problematic due to required large caustic volumes to maintain pH at optimal levels and, for some precipitants, lithium was also extracted.”

• cites Harrison 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The electrolysis process forms a weak sulfuric acid stream, which is recycled to the elution stage, reducing the need for purchase of large quantities of reagent.

“The electrolysis process forms a weak sulfuric acid stream, which is recycled to the elution stage, reducing the need for purchase of large quantities of reagent.”

• cites E3 Metals Corp. (2020)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.