Wolves, Elk, Bison, and Secondary Trophic Cascades in Yellowstone National Park

Abstract

Wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park in 1995/96, likely reestablishing a trophic cascade involving wolves, elk, and woody browse species.The return of wolves may have also triggered a secondary trophic cascade involving bison, which are generally a minor prey species for wolves in northern Yellowstone.We hypothesize a sequence of events in northern Yellowstone where: 1) wolves prey on elk, changing elk behavior and reducing elk numbers, 2) causing reduced elk herbivory and more forage available to bison, and 3) allowing higher bison densities and additional bison effects on the ecosystem.This secondary trophic cascade, whereby wolf predation may have indirectly allowed bison numbers to increase through a reduction in inter-specific competition with elk, may represent an example of an alternative top-down pathway by which predators can influence multiple trophic levels through mediating the competitive interaction between two prey species.Both wolves and bison can have important effects on ecosystems, and there is growing interest in restoring these animals to wider portions of their former range.However, there are many potential routes for interactions between species and it is important to consider the conservation implications of other cascading effects when reintroducing such ecologically influential species into wild landscapes.The potential benefits of bison to their native ecosystems may not be realized in situations with low predation pressure, high bison densities, and constraints on bison movement and migration, thus likely contributing to impairment of resources.