Effects of bison on willow and cottonwood in northern Yellowstone National Park
Abstract
On the northern ungulate winter range of Yellowstone Park, willow (Salix spp.) and cottonwood (Populus angustifolia and Populus balsamifera) have increased in height and cover in some places since the reintroduction of wolves (Canis lupus) and the subsequent changes in elk (Cervus elaphus) behavior and population densities. However, in the Lamar Valley, an important part of this winter range, many plants are still intensively browsed and recruitment has been limited. As elk numbers have declined and their distribution has changed in recent years, bison (Bison bison) have increased on the northern range. To distinguish bison effects from those of elk, we measured browsing that occurred in summer. We found average summer browse rates of 84% for willow and 54% for cottonwood seedlings in the summer of 2010, demonstrating that bison have become significant browsers in the Lamar Valley. Plants were increasing in size except where intensively browsed by bison, suggesting that a release from elk browsing has occurred, and that a trophic cascade is occurring from wolves to plants, mediated by both elk and bison. Release of bison from competition with elk, low levels of predation on bison, and lack of opportunity for migration and range expansion may be factors contributing to a high concentration of bison, with resulting effects on plant communities and biodiversity.
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Consumptive effects of bison can be significant where bison are present in high densities year after year, as in northern Yellowstone.
“These consumptive effects can be significant where bison are present in high densities year after year, as in northern Yellowstone (Beschta et al., 2020; Painter & Ripple, 2012; Rose & Cooper, 2016).”
From Bison alter the northern Yellowstone ecosystem by breaking aspen saplings (2023) · cites this paper as Painter & Ripple, 2012
Bison were present in large numbers on the northern range in summer, and this was when many of the aspen saplings were broken, as evidenced by attached foliage.
“Bison were present in large numbers on the northern range in summer (Painter & Ripple, 2012), and this was when many of the aspen saplings were broken, as evidenced by attached foliage.”
From Bison alter the northern Yellowstone ecosystem by breaking aspen saplings (2023) · cites this paper as Painter & Ripple, 2012
Only recently, as elk have decreased and bison increased, have bison emerged as an important factor affecting the dynamics of these woody plants.
“Only recently, as elk have decreased and bison increased, have bison emerged as an important factor affecting the dynamics of these woody plants (Beschta et al., 2020; Painter & Ripple, 2012; Ripple et al., 2010; Rose & Cooper, 2016).”
From Bison alter the northern Yellowstone ecosystem by breaking aspen saplings (2023) · cites this paper as Painter & Ripple, 2012
Browsing by elk likely suppressed willows at the Mammoth exclosure.
“Browsing by elk likely suppressed willows at the Mammoth exclosure, while browsing and trampling by bison appear to have caused a similar result at Junction Butte and Lamar Valley (Painter and Ripple 2012).”
From Tall willow thickets return to northern Yellowstone (2020) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
Browsing and trampling by bison appear to have caused a similar result at Junction Butte and Lamar Valley.
“Browsing by elk likely suppressed willows at the Mammoth exclosure, while browsing and trampling by bison appear to have caused a similar result at Junction Butte and Lamar Valley (Painter and Ripple 2012).”
From Tall willow thickets return to northern Yellowstone (2020) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
Much recent herbivory of willows in some locations can be attributed to bison, based on the height and season of browsing and the presence of herds of bison.
“Much recent herbivory of willows in some locations can be attributed to bison, based on the height and season of browsing (Fig. 6; Painter and Ripple 2012), and the presence of herds of bison.”
From Tall willow thickets return to northern Yellowstone (2020) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
Other studies in and around the Lamar Valley have obtained similar results, with bison representing 94-98% of all fecal counts.
“Other studies in and around the Lamar Valley have obtained similar results, with bison representing 94–98% of all fecal counts (Painter and Ripple 2012; Ripple et al. 2013; Kauffman et al. 2023).”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
The historical effects of the Park's elk population on riparian and upland plant communities have been well documented, while the effects of a recently increased bison population on the composition, structure, and function of these communities have only begun to be acknowledged.
“While the historical effects of the Park’s elk population on riparian and upland plant communities have been well documented (e.g., Skinner 1928; Jonas 1955; Kay 1990; Ripple and Larsen 2000; National Research Council 2002; Barmore 2003; Beschta 2005), the effects of a recently increased bison population on the composition, structure, and function of these communities have only begun to be”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
In the early 2000s, small groups of young aspen and willows grew above the upper browse level of elk and bison, as did cottonwoods in portions of the Upper Lamar study reach.
“During this period, small groups of young aspen and willows were able to grow above the upper browse level of elk and bison (Painter and Ripple 2012; Painter and Tercek 2020; Painter et al. 2023), as well as cottonwoods in portions of the Upper Lamar study reach (Beschta and Ripple 2015).”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
Bison use of woody plants during the growing season contrasts markedly with elk use, which normally occurs in late fall or winter.
“This pattern of relatively high use of woody plants during the growing season contrasts markedly with that of elk, whose use normally occurs in late fall or winter.”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
In 2010, the Northern Range bison population was ~2000 animals, slightly more than half the size of the 2023 population.
“At that time, the Northern Range bison population comprised ~2000 animals, slightly more than half the size of the 2023 population.”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
In 2010, summertime utilization rates associated with bison were 54% for cottonwood and 84% for willow.
“summertime utilization rates associated with bison were 54% for cottonwood and 84% for willow.”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
Breakage of young cottonwood, willow, and aspen stems by bison has been documented.
“The breakage of young cottonwood, willow, and aspen stems by bison also has been documented (Painter and Ripple 2012; Painter and Tercek 2020; Painter et al. 2023).”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter and Ripple 2012
Bison horning and rubbing appear to be a relatively new disturbance process within Yellowstone National Park, capable of affecting the composition and structural diversity of cottonwoods, willows, aspen, and conifers.
“The physical effects of bison horning and rubbing appear to represent a relatively “new” disturbance process within the Park, capable of affecting the composition and structural diversity of cottonwoods and willows in riparian areas, aspen in uplands and riparian areas, and conifers along rivers and grassland edges (White et al. 2015; Beschta et al. 2020; Painter et al. 2012, 2023).”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Painter et al. 2012
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“Herbivory also continued at high rates in some places, particularly where bison were in high concentrations and browsed on willow in the summer, as in Lamar Valley (Painter and Ripple 2012, Beschta et al. 2020).”
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Hardalau, D., Stefanescu, V., Bakševičius, M., Manton, M., Ruffner, C. M., Brazaitis, G., Ionescu, G., & Ionescu, O. M. (2025) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f16071079 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A noninvasive and integrative approach for improving density and abundance estimates of moose
Koitzsch, K. B., Anton, C. B., Koitzsch, L. O., Tjepkes, T. L., Schumann, A. C., & Strasburg, J. L. (2022) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22200 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Jansson, J., Spitzer, R., Brealey, J. C., & Spong, G. (2026) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.73354 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Meta-analysis on the effect of competition between lynx and wolf on their diets
Lelieveld, G., & Bodegom, P. V. (2013) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.26349.23520 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effects of Elk and Bison Herbivory on Narrowleaf Cottonwood
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Development of a grazing monitoring program for Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado
Zeigenfuss, L. C., & Schoenecker, K. A. (2015) · Antarctica A Keystone in a Changing World · doi:10.3133/ofr20151136 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison
Beschta, R. L., Ripple, W. J., & Kauffman, J. B. (2026) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-026-02505-1
“This recent increase in bison numbers appears to mark the beginning of a new phase of ungulate dominance, not only within the Lamar Valley study area but increasingly across other portions of the Northern Range.”
InfluentialSelf-citationAspen, Elk and Wolves in Yellowstone: Are Aspen Recovering Since the Return of Wolves
Painter, L. E., Ripple, W. J., Beschta, R. L., & Larsen, E. J. (2012) · The UW National Parks Service Research Station Annual Reports · doi:10.13001/uwnpsrc.2012.3947
Self-citationREMAKING NATURE IN MONTANA: TOPOPHILIC CONSIDERATIONS OF WOLVES AND WOLF TRAPPING
Myers, A. (2015) · The Mathematics Enthusiast
Does restoring apex predators to food webs restore ecosystems? Comment
Beschta, R. L., Painter, L. E., Ripple, W. J., & Kauffman, J. B. (2026) · Ecological Monographs · doi:10.1002/ecm.70050
Self-citation
- Authors
- Painter, L. E., & Ripple, W. J.
- Affiliations
- Oregon State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Painter, Luke E.
- Venue
- Forest Ecology and Management
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-01
- Volume
- 264
- Pages
- 150-158
- ISSN
- 0378-1127 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2028771313
- Cited by
- 45
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 3.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Forest Ecology and Management (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Ecology and biodiversity studies
- Keywords
- bison, elk, wolf reintroduction, trophic cascades, browsing, willow, cottonwood, poplar, Yellowstone National Park, plant recruitment, herbivore competition, predation, range expansion
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