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Optical Stimulation of Neurons
Open accessAbstract
Our capacity to interface with the nervous system remains overwhelmingly reliant on electrical stimulation devices, such as electrode arrays and cuff electrodes that can stimulate both central and peripheral nervous systems. However, electrical stimulation has to deal with multiple challenges, including selectivity, spatial resolution, mechanical stability, implant-induced injury and the subsequent inflammatory response. Optical stimulation techniques may avoid some of these challenges by providing more selective stimulation, higher spatial resolution and reduced invasiveness of the device, while also avoiding the electrical artefacts that complicate recordings of electrically stimulated neuronal activity. This review explores the current status of optical stimulation techniques, including optogenetic methods, photoactive molecule approaches and infrared neural stimulation, together with emerging techniques such as hybrid optical-electrical stimulation, nanoparticle enhanced stimulation and optoelectric methods. Infrared neural stimulation is particularly emphasised, due to the potential for direct activation of neural tissue by infrared light, as opposed to techniques that rely on the introduction of exogenous light responsive materials. However, infrared neural stimulation remains imperfectly understood, and techniques for accurately delivering light are still under development. While the various techniques reviewed here confirm the overall feasibility of optical stimulation, a number of challenges remain to be overcome before they can deliver their full potential.
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![Fig. (1) (a) 3D reconstruction of a guinea pig cochlea during stimulation. Black cylinder shows the position of the optical fibre, black dots indicates the spiral ganglion neurons, green dots are the inner pillar feet. (See online for colour) (b) The spatial tuning curve obtained from recordings of the ICC, showing stimulation at 10.8 kHz and 16.1 kHz. Fig. reproduced from [84], with permission from Elsevier.](/paper-figures/4a90f4f3adfe4bebb8c0cdac8cbe7139/optical-stimulation-of-neurons-figure-1.jpg)
![Fig. (2) Example of temperature measurement (left) and change in cell membrane potential (right) during and after exposure to INS. Adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature Communications [56], copyright (2012).](/paper-figures/d4b80350b3a042f085753387c6b57e96/optical-stimulation-of-neurons-figure-2.jpg)
![Fig. (3) Absorption coefficient in water [140] and oxygenated blood (5% haematocrit) [141]. Reduced scattering coefficient in dermis [142] and white matter [142] over the wavelength range of 200 nm to 2500 nm. Wavelength ranges commonly used for Optogenetics (380 – 650 nm), INS (1400 – 2200 nm) and Nanoparticle Enhanced INS (700 – 900 nm) are highlighted. Vertical dashed grey lines show the therapeutic window where absorption and scattering is relatively low.](/paper-figures/e52a5e5db4d043dfb5e56287f9c7805a/optical-stimulation-of-neurons-figure-3.jpg)
![Fig. (4) SEM image of (a) silicon Utah slant optrode array and (b) glass optrode array reproduced from [153], with permission from SPIE.](/paper-figures/7feeb0d057594c338e109eaf0e3a9a6c/optical-stimulation-of-neurons-figure-4.jpg)
![Fig. (5) Heating from different stimulation rates with INS, when using a fibre with core diameter of 200 μm and NA = 0.22, with a wavelength of 1850 nm and pulse energy of 25 µJ. a) Over 1 second b) over 10 seconds. Reproduced from [160].](/paper-figures/e309f9bb1fe248e8b1a8d0a7e9f8a02b/optical-stimulation-of-neurons-figure-5.jpg)
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“ChR2 responds to blue (470 nm) lights to depolarise a neuron, and HR exhibits sensitivity toward green light (578 nm) that hyperpolarises the cell, thus inhibiting the propagation of action potentials [107].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [107]
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“For example, short-pulse IR light has been demonstrated for photothermal stimulation as a result of thermally sensitive ion channels or due to a change in cell capacitance (159).”
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MethodNanomaterial-Enabled Neural Stimulation
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“Such QD-neuron interfaces have been reviewed in the class of optical neural stimulation techniques elsewhere (Bareket-Keren and Hanein, 2014; Thompson et al., 2014).”
BackgroundLet There Be Light—Optoprobes for Neural Implants
Alt, M. T., Fiedler, E., Rudmann, L., Ordonez, J. S., Ruther, P., & Stieglitz, T. (2016) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2016.2577518 · Cited by 63
“The laser parameters depend on the location and application [87], e.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelective inhibition of small-diameter axons using infrared light
Lothet, E. H., Shaw, K. M., Lu, H., Zhuo, J., Wang, Y. T., Gu, S., Stolz, D. B., Jansen, D., Horn, C. C., Chiel, H. J., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-03374-9 · Cited by 61
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“Such nanomaterials can be targeted to the plasma membrane, allowing precise opto-thermal manipulations of ion channels with minimal tissue damage by excessive heating [107, 108].”
BackgroundStimulation of water and calcium dynamics in astrocytes with pulsed infrared light
Borrachero‐Conejo, A. I., Adams, W. R., Saracino, E., Mola, M. G., Wang, M., Posati, T., Formaggio, F., Bellis, M. D., Frigeri, A., Caprini, M., et al. (2020) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.201903049r · Cited by 49
“However, pulsed infrared light has been demonstrated using a wide range of laser parameters (53).”
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Pulsed infrared releases Ca2+from the endoplasmic reticulum of cultured spiral ganglion neurons
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Optical stimulation of neural tissue
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“Optical stimulation alludes to the use of light to trigger neurons (81).”
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McPheeters, M. T., Wang, Y. T., Werdich, A. A., Jenkins, M. W., & Laurita, K. R. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183761 · Cited by 38
“Infrared light has been used previously to elicit action potential activity from neurons[36, 37] and cardiac myocytes[17, 18].”
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Infrared neural stimulation in human cerebral cortex.
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“cochlea[51,52], 477 inhibition of nociceptive response in peripheral nerves[53]).”
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Thermal damage threshold of neurons during infrared stimulation
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“Energy in the form of acoustic [1], magnetic [2], optical waves [3] and electric fields [4] can stimulate neurons or modulate their activity.”
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“” The experimental data further confirm that lightinduced heat-mediated effects are unlikely during GraMOS, because 1) a light intensity required for GraMOS is ~1,000 times lower than required for thermal effects (Jenkins et al., 2010; Shapiro et al., 2012; Thompson et al., 2014), 2) the surface temperature of optoele…”
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“Conventional INM typically involves laser-evoked heating approaching ∼ 60 ° C for durations generally less than a millisecond (Thompson et al., 2014).”
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“…(Wells et al. 2005, Peterson and Tyler 2013, Thompson et al. 2014, Cayce et al. 2014, Chernov and Roe 2014), and in the cochlea the area of excitation has been shown to be more spatially precise compared to electrical stimulation (Richter et al. 2011, Thompson et al. 2014, Agarwal et al. 2021).”
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“Since the INS is dependent on thermal changes, proper knowledge of the distribution of heat in the nervous system may improve the production of optical devices for stimulating the neuron [14].”
BackgroundInfrared neuromodulation—a review
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“INS has been reviewed in detail previously by several out-standing review papers [24–26 , 44– 47].”
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Response of primary auditory neurons to stimulation with infrared light in vitro
Brown, W. G. A., Needham, K., Begeng, J. M., Thompson, A. C., Nayagam, B. A., Kameneva, T., & Stoddart, P. R. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abe7b8 · Cited by 11
“The estimated SGN stimulation thresholds did not differ remarkably from those observed in other neurons [7], indicating that the mechanism(s) responsible for the low in vivo SGN stimulation threshold are not present in cultured SGNs.”
InfluentialActive Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review
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“ChR2 responds to blue (470 nm) lights to depolarise a neuron, and HR exhibits sensitivity toward green light (578 nm) that hyperpolarises the cell, thus inhibiting the propagation of action potentials [107].”
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Current Review of Optical Neural Interfaces for Clinical Applications
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“We classified this type of optical neural stimulation as an intrinsic neural stimulation as it requires no neural engineering prior to light irradiation [8].”
BackgroundVagus nerve bundle stimulation using 1505‐nm laser irradiation in an in‐vivo rat model
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Emerging trends in the development of flexible optrode arrays for electrophysiology
Almasri, R. M., Ladouceur, F. J., Mawad, D., Esrafilzadeh, D., Firth, J., Lehmann, T., Poole-Warren, L. A., Lovell, N. H., & Abed, A. A. (2023) · APL Bioengineering · doi:10.1063/5.0153753 · Cited by 7
You, M., Zhou, R., & Mou, Z. (2019) · Biomedical Microdevices · doi:10.1007/s10544-019-0428-3 · Cited by 7
Multi‐Channel Neural Interface for Neural Recording and Neuromodulation
Kim, E.-M., Chung, W. G., Kim, E., Oh, M., Paek, J., Lee, T., Kim, D., An, S. H., Kim, S., & Park, J. (2025) · Small Methods · doi:10.1002/smtd.202501227 · Cited by 9
Hutchinson, M. R., Stoddart, P. R., & Mahadevan-Jansen, A. M. (2018) · Neurophotonics · doi:10.1117/1.nph.5.4.040402 · Cited by 6
“The past 15 years has seen a rapid growth of interest in optical techniques for interfacing with the nervous system, including methods, such as optogenetics and infrared neural modulation.(32) In the context of infrared neural modulation, the ability to thermally inhibit neural activity with high spatial precision has…”
MethodLee, W.-E., Tsou, C., Liao, Z.-X., Lu, P.-Y., Lin, T., Lee, S.-Y., Lin, C. K., & Shieh, G.-S. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3083772 · Cited by 6
“Based on the above discussion, combining electrical and optogenetic stimulation in one system seems reasonable [19].”
BackgroundGuo, X.-J., Zhao, Z., Chang, J., He, L., Su, W.-N., Feng, T., Zhao, C., Xu, M., & Rao, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1282558 · Cited by 6
Lin, H.-Y., Nurunnabi, M., Chen, W., & Huang, C.-H. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815889-0.00016-7 · Cited by 6
Moorthy, V. M., Parthasarathy, V., & Daniel, R. J. (2020) · Biosurface and Biotribology · doi:10.1049/bsbt.2019.0045 · Cited by 5
“It is obvious because, direct light-induced, heat-mediated effects are unlikely in our setup for the following reasons: (i) high light intensity would be required for these effects [26, 29] and (ii) light-induced heat, usually produces a gradual changing cellular response during continuous light exposure [30], whereas…”
BackgroundJiang, C., Fujita, T., & Kumamoto, E. (2016) · Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.bbrep.2016.06.011 · Cited by 5
“In order to know what is a final response on SG neurons after physiological release of oxytocin, it would be necessary to be examined how synaptic responses recorded from SG neurons using the in vivo patch-clamp technique [25] are affected by electrically or optogenetically [26] stimulating hypothalamic neurons contai…”
MethodOptonongenetic enhancement of activity in primary cortical neurons
Ghirga, S., Pagani, F., Rosito, M., Angelantonio, S. D., Ruocco, G., & Leonetti, M. (2020) · Journal of the Optical Society of America A · doi:10.1364/josaa.385832 · Cited by 5
Signal processing and stimulation potential within the ascending auditory pathway: a review
Quimby, A. E., Wei, K., Adewole, D. O., Eliades, S. J., Cullen, D. K., & Brant, J. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1277627 · Cited by 4
“A photoelectric effect, whereby heating of cochlear fluids generates fluid pressure waves akin to acoustic stimuli, may also contribute to neuronal responses to light stimulation within the cochlea (Thompson et al., 2014).”
BackgroundAbdollahiyan, P., Sui, K., Li, G., Berg, R. W., Meneghetti, M., & Markos, C. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2025.110484 · Cited by 4
“In contrast to INS, it needs the incorporation of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) into neurons, making them responsive to visible light (Thompson et al., 2014).”
Integrated Photonic Arrays as a Platform for Infrared Neural Stimulation
Kossey, M. R., Alt, S., Rizk, C. G., & Foster, A. C. (2017) · Optics in the Life Sciences · doi:10.1364/boda.2017.bos2a.8 · Cited by 4
Lewis, T. H. J., Zhuo, J., McClellan, J. X., Getsy, P. M., Ryan, R. M., Jenkins, M. J., & Lewis, S. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1219998 · Cited by 4
Nazari, S., & Karim Faez, A. (2018) · Soft Computing · doi:10.1007/s00500-018-03671-z · Cited by 4
Adams, W. R., Borrachero‐Conejo, A. I., Rasiah, P. K., Saracino, E., Zamboni, R., Jansen, D., Benfenati, V., & Mahadevan-Jansen, A. M. (2025) · Advanced Biology · doi:10.1002/adbi.202500269 · Cited by 3
Gold Nanomaterial-Enabled Optical Neural Stimulation
Wang, Y. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41854-0_14 · Cited by 3
Tian, F., Liu, Y., Chen, M., Schriver, K. E., & Roe, A. W. (2025) · Cell Reports Methods · doi:10.1016/j.crmeth.2024.100961 · Cited by 3
“17,29,65 The leading theory in mammalian brain is that INS induces changes in membrane capacitance, which in turn lead to neuronal action potentials.”
Implantable Glass Waveguides and Coating Materials for Chronic Optical Medical Applications
Alt, M. T., Mittnacht, A., & Stieglitz, T. (2018) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2018.8513121 · Cited by 2
“In contrast, direct infrared stimulation [2] enables cell activity without prior genome modification.”
BackgroundNeurotechnology for monitoring and restoring sensory, motor, and autonomic functions
Wu, P. C., Knaack, G. L., & Weber, D. J. (2016) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.2222967 · Cited by 2
Wan, Y., Wang, M., Zhang, S., & Xie, B. (2021) · Journal of Innovative Optical Health Sciences · doi:10.1142/s1793545821500140 · Cited by 2
Design Considerations for Implantable Neural Circuits and Systems
Hsu, W.-Y., Hsieh, P.-H., & Chen, H. (2023) · Handbook of Neuroengineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5540-1_19 · Cited by 1
Tashiro, H., Popović, M. B., Iramina, K., Terasawa, Y., & Ohta, J. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812939-5.00006-9 · Cited by 1
Ebtehaj, Z., Malekmohammad, M., Hatef, A., & Soltanolkotabi, M. (2021) · Advanced Theory and Simulations · doi:10.1002/adts.202000214 · Cited by 1
Electroluminescence of Single InGaN/GaN Micropyramids
Babichev, A. V., Denisov, D. V., Lavenus, P., Jacopin, G., Tchernycheva, M., Julien, F. H., & Zhang, H. (2019) · Optics and Spectroscopy · doi:10.1134/s0030400x19020036 · Cited by 1
Image Processing and Still Image Transferring for Optogenetics Visual Cortical Stimulator
Fattah, N. A., Al‐Atabany, W., & Degenaar, P. A. (2020) · Eurasian Journal of Science and Engineering · doi:10.23918/eajse.v6i2p73 · Cited by 1
Implantable Optical Neural Interface
Jun, S. B., & Lim, Y. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33201-7_9
End-Fire Silicon Optical Phased Arrays for Infrared Neural Stimulation Applications
Kossey, M. R., Alt, S., Rizk, C. G., & Foster, A. C. (2017) · Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics · doi:10.1364/cleo_at.2017.atu1b.4
“067 seconds [6,7] (The exact rise time to 0.”
BackgroundЭлектролюминесценция одиночных InGaN/GaN микропирамид
Babichev, A. V., Denisov, D. V., Lavenus, P., Jacopin, G., Tchernycheva, M., Julien, F. H., & Zhang, H. (2019) · Журнал технической физики · doi:10.21883/os.2019.02.47201.130-18
A Mathematical Modeling of Infrared Neural Stimulation
Alex, C. S. (2020) · Undergraduate Journal of Mathematical Modeling One + Two · doi:10.5038/2326-3652.10.2.4914
PILOTSTUDIE: VNS-ANALYSE BEI NIR-LASER-FELD-THERAPIE MIT CW VERSUS PULSED MODES
Kreisel, V. (2020) · Akupunktur & Aurikulomedizin · doi:10.1007/s15009-020-5675-0
Design Considerations for Implantable Neural Circuits and Systems
Hsu, W.-Y., Hsieh, P.-H., & Chen, H. (2021) · Handbook of Neuroengineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-2848-4_19-1
Osborn, L. E., Betthauser, J., & Thakor, N. V. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/047134608x.w1424.pub2 · Cited by 2
Editorial: Nanomaterials for Communicating With the Brain
Tong, W., Ibbotson, M. R., & Ghezzi, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.918949
Defect Engineering in Layered Black Phosphorus for Multi-Functional Optoelectronics
Ahmed, T., & Walia, S. (2022) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781839162909-00033
Frequency demodulation with magnetoelectric coreshells
Narayanan, R. P., Khaleghi, A., & Balasingham, I. (2023) · ACM International Conference on Nanoscale Computing and Communication (NANOCOM) · doi:10.1145/3576781.3608710
Tashiro, H., Herr, H., Popović, M. B., Iramina, K., Terasawa, Y., & Ohta, J. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13862-1.00017-5
Automated optical system of integrated photostimulation of the human nervous system
Tymchik, G. S., Skytsiouk, V. I., Klotchko, T. R., Paliy, V. G., Azhibekova, Z., Пінаєва, О., Dzierżak, R., & Massimgaziyeva, A. (2024) · Photonics Applications in Astronomy, Communications, Industry, and High-Energy Physics Experiments (WILGA) · doi:10.1117/12.3054869
“Optical stimulation methods 7 can avoid some of these problems by providing selective stimulation, high spatial resolution, and reduced device invasiveness.”
Metadata
- Authors
- C. Thompson, A., R. Stoddart, P., & Jansen, E. D.
- Venue
- Current Molecular Imaging
- Publisher
- Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
- Published
- 2015-02-04
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 162-177
- ISSN
- 2211-5544 (ISSN-L)
- 2211-5552
- PMC
- PMC4541079
- OpenAlex
- W1967609781
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 161
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 3.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Current molecular imaging (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Swinburne figshare (Swinburne University of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS052407)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Photoreceptor and optogenetics research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Optical Imaging and Spectroscopy Techniques
- Keywords
- optical neural stimulation, optogenetics, photoactive molecules, infrared neural stimulation, neural interfaces, light delivery, implant-induced inflammation
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