Optical stimulation of neural tissue
Open accessAbstract
Electrical stimulation has been used for decades in devices such as pacemakers, cochlear implants and more recently for deep brain and retinal stimulation and electroceutical treatment of disease. However, current spread from the electrodes limits the precision of neural activation, leading to a low quality therapeutic outcome or undesired side‐effects. Alternative methods of neural stimulation such as optical stimulation offer the potential to deliver higher spatial resolution of neural activation. Direct optical stimulation is possible with infrared light, while visible light can be used to activate neurons if the neural tissue is genetically modified with a light sensitive ion channel. Experimentally, both methods have resulted in highly precise stimulation with little spread of activation at least in the cochlea, each with advantages and disadvantages. Infrared neural stimulation does not require modification of the neural tissue, but has very high power requirements. Optogenetics can achieve precision of activation with lower power, but only in conjunction with targeted insertion of a light sensitive ion channel into the nervous system via gene therapy. This review will examine the advantages and limitations of optical stimulation of neural tissue, using the cochlea as an exemplary model and recent developments for retinal and deep brain stimulation.
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The efficacy of INS can be limited due to its reliance on the cell's thermal absorption.
“However, the efficacy of INS can be limited due to its reliance on the cell's thermal absorption [109].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [109]
The Infrared neural stimulation section identifies high energy requirements and potential thermal tissue damage as restrictions on INS. It says INS relies on water absorption of light, however, not specifically on a cell’s thermal absorption; it also describes heat-mediated activation as a hypothesis rather than a settled mechanism. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Self-citationHigh-Density μLED-Based Optical Cochlear Implant With Improved Thermomechanical Behavior
Klein, E., Goßler, C., Paul, O., & Ruther, P. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00659 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Combined optical and electrical stimulation of neural tissue in vivo
Duke, A. R., Cayce, J. M., Malphrus, J. D., Konrad, P., Mahadevan-Jansen, A., & Jansen, E. D. (2009) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.3257230 · Cited by 76 · cited 2× · see citing works
“In addition to the cochlea, INS has been used to stimulate the visual cortex [18], the sciatic nerve and other peripheral nerves [19].”
BackgroundMethodFried, N. M., Lagoda, G. A., Scott, N. J., Su, L.-M., & Burnett, A. L. “. (2008) · Journal of Endourology · doi:10.1089/end.2008.9996 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
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Infrared neural stimulation fails to evoke neural activity in the deaf guinea pig cochlea
Thompson, A. C., Fallon, J. B., Wise, A. K., Wade, S. A., Shepherd, R. K., & Stoddart, P. R. (2015) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2015.03.005 · Cited by 69 · cited 1× · see citing works
“cochleae in which all hair cells have been ablated by chemical deafening [20] and the time dependent characteristics of the compound action potential response are indicative of photoacoustic activation [21].”
BackgroundSelf-citationGold Nanoparticle‐Loaded Neural Stem Cells for Photothermal Ablation of Cancer
Schnarr, K., Mooney, R., Weng, Y., Zhao, D., Garcia, E., Armstrong, B., Annala, A. J., Kim, S. U., Aboody, K. S., & Berlin, J. M. (2013) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.201300003 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
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Surface Microstructure of the Perilymphatic Space
Shepherd, R. K., & Colreavy, M. (2004) · Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery · doi:10.1001/archotol.130.5.518 · Cited by 61 · cited 1× · see citing works
“perilymphatic fluid and a thin 6–25 μm bone layer [98] before reaching the auditory neurons.”
BackgroundOptical pacing of the adult rabbit heart
Jenkins, M. W., Wang, Y. T., Doughman, Y. Q., Watanabe, M., Cheng, Y., & Rollins, A. M. (2013) · Biomedical Optics Express · doi:10.1364/boe.4.001626 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Optoacoustic effect is responsible for laser-induced cochlear responses
Kallweit, N., Baumhoff, P., Krueger, A., Tinne, N., Kral, A., Ripken, T., & Maier, H. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep28141 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“cochleae in which all hair cells have been ablated by chemical deafening [20] and the time dependent characteristics of the compound action potential response are indicative of photoacoustic activation [21].”
BackgroundGoyal, V. K., Rajguru, S. M., Matic, A. I., Stock, S. R., & Richter, C. (2012) · The Anatomical Record · doi:10.1002/ar.22583 · Cited by 58 · cited 5× · see citing works
“INS, at least in short-term experiments in the guinea pig, appeared not to affect compound action potential amplitude or cell survival when stimulating at 250 Hz and 25 μJ/pulse [40], but the long-term effects have not been examined.”
BackgroundInfluentialCurrent Distribution Measurements Within the Human Cochlea
Black, R. C., Clark, G. M., & Patrick, J. F. (1981) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.1981.324668 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Sugano, E., Isago, H., Wang, Z., Murayama, N., Tamai, M., & Tomita, H. (2010) · Gene Therapy · doi:10.1038/gt.2010.140 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
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Radiant energy required for infrared neural stimulation
Tan, X., Rajguru, S. M., Young, H. K., Xia, N., Stock, S. R., Xiao, X., & Richter, C. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep13273 · Cited by 54 · cited 1× · see citing works
“diameter and pulse length used [23, 24] and up to 1 mJ/pulse for some peripheral nerves [25].”
MethodVillalobos, J., Allen, P. J., McCombe, M. F., Ulaganathan, M., Zamir, E., Ng, D. C., Shepherd, R. K., & Williams, C. E. (2011) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-011-1794-6 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Duke, A. R., Peterson, E., Mackanos, M. A., Atkinson, J., Tyler, D., & Jansen, E. D. (2012) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/9/6/066006 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Auditory Neural Activity in Congenitally Deaf Mice Induced by Infrared Neural Stimulation
Tan, X., Jahan, I., Xu, Y., Stock, S. R., Kwan, C. C., Soriano, C., Xiao, X., Garcı́a-Añoveros, J., Fritzsch, B., & Richter, C. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18814-9 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Evaluation of focused multipolar stimulation for cochlear implants in long-term deafened cats
George, S. S., Wise, A. K., Fallon, J. B., & Shepherd, R. K. (2015) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/12/3/036003 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationEvaluation of focused multipolar stimulation for cochlear implants in acutely deafened cats
George, S. S., Wise, A. K., Shivdasani, M. N., Shepherd, R. K., & Fallon, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/11/6/065003 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationSTEM CELL THERAPIES, GENE-BASED THERAPIES, OPTOGENETICS, AND RETINAL PROSTHETICS:
Wood, E. H., Tang, P. H., la Huerta, I. D., Korot, E., Muscat, S. P., Palanker, D., & Williams, G. A. (2019) · Retina · doi:10.1097/iae.0000000000002449 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Fried, N. M., Lagoda, G. A., Scott, N. J., Su, L., & Burnett, A. L. “. (2008) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2008.4649778 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Roe, A. W., Chernov, M. M., Friedman, R. M., & Chen, G. (2015) · Frontiers in Neuroanatomy · doi:10.3389/fnana.2015.00135 · Cited by 31 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In addition to the cochlea, INS has been used to stimulate the visual cortex [18], the sciatic nerve and other peripheral nerves [19].”
MethodDarrow, K. N., Slama, M. C. C., Kozin, E. D., Owoc, M. S., Hancock, K. E., Kempfle, J. S., Edge, A. S. B., Lacour, S. P., Boyden, E. S., Polley, D. B., et al. (2014) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.11.044 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Hart, W. L., Richardson, R. T., Kameneva, T., Thompson, A., Wise, A. K., Fallon, J. B., Stoddart, P. R., & Needham, K. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab6a68 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationIncreasing the expression level of ChR2 enhances the optogenetic excitability of cochlear neurons
Meng, X., Murali, S. S., Cheng, Y., Lü, J., Hight, A. E., Kanumuri, V. V., Brown, M. C., Holt, J. R., Lee, D. J., & Edge, A. S. B. (2019) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00828.2018 · Cited by 22 · cited 1× · see citing works
“sion levels in individual cells, higher photosensitivity and probability of firing was found for cells with higher ChR2 expression, with overall influence on the oABR [67].”
BackgroundAuditory nerve impulses induced by 980 nm laser
Guan, T. M., Zhu, K., Wang, J., He, Y., He, Y., Mocun, W., & Nie, G. (2015) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.20.8.088004 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Douar, A. M., Bouquet, C., Pruneau, D., Chavas, J., Dalkara, D., Duebel, J., Benosman, R., Chenegros, G., Picaud, S., Sahel, J., et al. (2016) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1016/s1525-0016(16)33077-5 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Synthesis of Core-shell Lanthanide-doped Upconversion Nanocrystals for Cellular Applications
Ai, X., Lyu, L., Mu, J., Hu, M., Wang, Z., & Xing, B. (2017) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/56416 · Cited by 10 · cited 1× · see citing works
“of near infrared light (NIR), lanthanide-doped up-conversion nanoparticles can be used to convert NIR to visible light which in turn can activate channelrhodopsin ion channels [92].”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Multifunctional Scaffolds and Synergistic Strategies in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
Muzzio, N., Moya, S. E., & Romero, G. (2021) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics13060792 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“For instance, optical stimulation of neuronal tissue is significantly more focused than electrical stimulation, which would enable the activation of more discrete, independent populations [18].”
BackgroundThompson, A., Wise, A. K., Hart, W. L., Needham, K., Fallon, J. B., Gunewardene, N., Stoddart, P. R., & Richardson, R. T. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abbff0 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Therefore, there is a wide range of radiant exposure levels reported for neural activation (reviewed in (Richardson et al., 2020)).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationViral-mediated transduction of auditory neurons with opsins for optical and hybrid activation
Richardson, R. T., Thompson, A., Wise, A. K., Ajay, E. A., Gunewardene, N., O’Leary, S. J., Stoddart, P. R., & Fallon, J. B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-90764-9 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationPhysical mechanisms of emerging neuromodulation modalities
Karatum, O., Han, M., Erdoğan, E. T., Karamürsel, S., & Nizamoğlu, S. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/acd870 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Infrared neurostimulation in ex-vivo rat sciatic nerve using 1470 nm wavelength
Cury, J., Perre, L. V., Smets, H., Stumpp, L. I., Vespa, S., Vanhoestenberghe, A., Doguet, P., Delbeke, J., Tahry, R. E., Gorza, S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abf28f · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“For instance, the current spreading in tissue does not allow precise stimulation targeting, leading to a reduced resolution, in particular for spinal cord stimulators [87] as well as retinal and cochlear implants [88, 89].”
Nanoparticle-based optical interfaces for retinal neuromodulation: a review
Stoddart, P. R., Begeng, J. M., Tong, W., Ibbotson, M. R., & Kameneva, T. (2024) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2024.1360870 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationA tissue-engineered neural interface with photothermal functionality
do Nascimento, A. T., Mendes, A. X., Begeng, J. M., Duchi, S., Stoddart, P. R., Quigley, A. F., Kapsa, R. M. I., Ibbotson, M. R., Silva, S. M., & Moulton, S. E. (2023) · Biomaterials Science · doi:10.1039/d3bm00139c · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationAdvances in the Regulation of Neural Function by Infrared Light
Song, L., Wang, H., & Peng, R. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25020928 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Compared with other modulation methods, such as electrical stimulation, magnetic stimulation, optogenetics and visual stimulation, INM has substantial advantages (Table 2) [12–14].”
MethodNoga, B. R., & Guest, J. D. (2021) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0000000000000999 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Azees, A. A., Thompson, A., Thomas, R., Zhou, J., Ruther, P., Wise, A. K., Ajay, E. A., Garrett, D. J., Quigley, A. F., Fallon, J. B., et al. (2023) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2023.108911 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationActive Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review
Habibollahi, M., Jiang, D., Lancashire, H. T., & Demosthenous, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3430038 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Shanshool, A. S., Ziaee, S., Ansari, M. A., & Tuchin, V. V. (2024) · Progress in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1016/j.pquantelec.2024.100506 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Water-filtered Infrared A (wIRA) Irradiation
Vaupel, P. W. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92880-3 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Wearable smart textiles—recent development and applications
Takebira, U. M., Mohibullah, A. T. M., Mehbub, A., Islam, M., Pervez, M. N., & Mondal, M. I. H. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15471-3.00003-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Antoniou, G., Yuan, P., Koutsokeras, L. E., Athanasopoulos, S., Fazzi, D., Panidi, J., Georgiadou, D. G., Prodromakis, T., & Keivanidis, P. E. (2022) · Journal of Materials Chemistry C · doi:10.1039/d2tc00662f · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bartlett, M., He, M., Ranke, D., Wang, Y., & Cohen‐Karni, T. (2023) · MRS Advances · doi:10.1557/s43580-023-00645-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Emerging trends in the development of flexible optrode arrays for electrophysiology
Almasri, R. M., Ladouceur, F. J., Mawad, D., Esrafilzadeh, D., Firth, J., Lehmann, T., Poole-Warren, L. A., Lovell, N. H., & Abed, A. A. (2023) · APL Bioengineering · doi:10.1063/5.0153753 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Optoacoustic tones generated by nanosecond laser pulses can cover the entire human hearing range
Lengert, L., Lohmann, H., Johannsmeier, S., Ripken, T., Maier, H., Heisterkamp, A., & Kalies, S. (2022) · Journal of Biophotonics · doi:10.1002/jbio.202200161 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Abdollahiyan, P., Sui, K., Li, G., Berg, R. W., Meneghetti, M., & Markos, C. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2025.110484 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Furthermore, electrical stimulation can introduce artifacts when recording neuronal activity, complicating the interpretation of results (Thompson et al., 2014; Richardson et al., 2020).”
Cho, Y. U., Lee, J. Y., & Yu, K. J. (2024) · STAR Protocols · doi:10.1016/j.xpro.2024.102909 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hybrid optogenetic and electrical stimulation of retinal ganglion cells for artificial vision
Kwan, W. C., Brunton, E., Goris, T., Begeng, J. M., Kameneva, T., Stoddart, P. R., Ibbotson, M. R., Richardson, R. T., & Tong, W. (2025) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2025.103012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationResponse of a neuronal network computational model to infrared neural stimulation
Wei, J., Li, L., Song, H., Du, Z., Yang, J., Zhang, M., & Liu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncom.2022.933818 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Optical stimulation techniques can significantly improve cochlear implants hampered by a lack of spatial selectivity (Richardson et al., 2020).”
BackgroundG-Optrode Bio-Interfaces for Non-Invasive Optical Cell Stimulation: Design and Evaluation
Moorthy, V. M., Varatharajan, P., Rathnasami, J. D., & Srivastava, V. M. (2022) · Biosensors · doi:10.3390/bios12100808 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“[11], infrared light can be used to directly stimulate neurons, whereas visible light could be used to stimulate neurons if the neural cells are genetically altered with a light-sensitive ion channel.”
BackgroundElectroceuticals: Unlocking the promise of therapies
Mishra, I., Chaudhary, K., Sharma, V., Krishna, G., & Mishra, R. (2024) · DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1007/s40199-024-00549-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Inadequate specificity, off-target effects, and current dispersion are the fundamental causes of a great deal of ES-related problems [9].”
Implantable multi-modality microelectrode arrays: Past, present, and future
Wu, B., & Cui, X. T. (2025) · Journal of materials research/Pratt's guide to venture capital sources · doi:10.1557/s43578-025-01736-y · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“For a comprehensive understanding of optical stimulations, a review from Richardson et al. explained the principle of optical neural stimulation in detail [84].”
Fraxicon for Optical Applications with Aperture ∼1 mm: Characterisation Study
Mu, H., Smith, D. W., Ng, S. H., Anand, V., Le, N. H. A., Dharmavarapu, R., Khajehsaeidimahabadi, Z., Richardson, R. T., Ruther, P., Stoddart, P. R., et al. (2024) · Nanomaterials · doi:10.3390/nano14030287 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“It has been shown that optical neuromodulation with visible light, facilitated by optogenetics, can confer higher spatial precision of neural activation compared to traditional electrical stimulation methods [83].”
BackgroundSelf-citationGold Nanorod-Embedded PDMS Micro-Pillar Array for Localized Photothermal Stimulation
Mustakim, N., Vera, L. F. R., Pinto, J. P., & Seo, S. (2024) · Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems · doi:10.1109/jmems.2024.3418373 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Heat accumulation during infrared stimulation impacts the response of ex vivo rat sciatic nerve*
Perre, L. V., Cerda, J. C., Verstraeten, M., Raffoul, R., Delbeke, J., Tahry, R. E., Nonclercq, A., & Gorza, S. (2023) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc40787.2023.10340444 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Compared to optogenetic techniques, this method does not require any prior genetic modification of the targeted tissue [4].”
MethodSpatially precise activation of the mouse cochlea with a multi-channel hybrid cochlear implant
Azees, A. A., Thompson, A. C., Ruther, P., Ajay, E. A., Zhou, J., Robles, U. A. A., Garrett, D. J., Quigley, A. F., Fallon, J. B., & Richardson, R. T. (2025) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/add091 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationZhou, R., Mou, Z., Yang, D., & Wang, X. (2021) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/s11517-021-02475-y · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Differential Tissue‐Coupled Powering for Battery‐Free Injectable Electroceuticals
Wu, H., Mahmud, S. A. S., Halac, M., Omi, A. I., Rodas, D. S. B., Dados, J., Cheng, C., Jiang, A., Wallace, C., Singh, A., et al. (2026) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.76915 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Thermal lensing during infrared neural stimulation enables spatially resolved photothermal dosimetry
Hardenburger, J., Millis, B. A., Bixler, J. N., Valdez, C. M., Jansen, D., & Mahadevan-Jansen, A. M. (2025) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ae2953 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Dhanusha, A., Andrews, J. F. V., Kandasamy, M., & Girisun, T. C. S. (2026) · Colloids and Surfaces A Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects · doi:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2026.140310 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Water-Filtered IR
Hamblin, M. R. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92880-3_23 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lan, T., Zeng, M., Tian, G., & Xu, J. (2023) · Biomedical Optics Express · doi:10.1364/boe.494620 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Differences in conduction velocities of nerve fibers excited by infrared and electrical stimulation
Perre, L. V., Cerda, J. C., Gochard, S., Verstraeten, M., Raffoul, R., Leonard, C. A., Delbeke, J., Tahry, R. E., Gorza, S., & Nonclercq, A. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2025.110427 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
How spatial temperature gradients modulate infrared stimulation of the ex vivo rat sciatic nerve
Perre, L. V., Cerda, J. C., Haut, B., Verstraeten, M., Raffoul, R., Delbeke, J., Tahry, R. E., Gorza, S., & Nonclercq, A. (2025) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2025.03.015 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Hybrid Miniaturized Modular Probe for Minimally Invasive Neural Intervention
Zhao, X., Deng, M., Guo, S., Liu, J., Liu, N., & Li, Z. (2024) · Advanced Materials Technologies · doi:10.1002/admt.202401003
Salnikov, V. D., Antipova, V., Vorontsov, P., Turusheva, D. K., Ignatov, A., Александрович, Е. П., Levada, K. V., Omelyanchik, A. S., & Rodionova, V. V. (2025) · Nanobiotechnology Reports · doi:10.1134/s2635167624602559
Thermophoresis induced by photothermal shock alters reversal potential and capacitance in neurons
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- Authors
- Richardson, R. T., Ibbotson, M. R., Thompson, A. C., Wise, A. K., & Fallon, J. B.
- Affiliations
- Bionics Institute (AU)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Richardson, Rachael Theresa
- ORCID
- Venue
- Healthcare Technology Letters
- Published
- 2020-06
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 58-65
- ISSN
- 2053-3713 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7353819
- OpenAlex
- W3026689292
- Cited by
- 40
- References
- 108
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 2.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Healthcare Technology Letters (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Garnett Passe and Rodney Williams Memorial Foundation
- State Government of Victoria
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Photoreceptor and optogenetics research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Vagus Nerve Stimulation Research
- Keywords
- optical neural stimulation, optogenetics, infrared neural stimulation, light-sensitive ion channels, cochlear stimulation, retinal stimulation, deep brain stimulation, gene therapy
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