Investigating Exposure and Hazards of Micro- and Nanoplastics During Pregnancy and Early Life (AURORA Project): Protocol for an Interdisciplinary Study
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Background: Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging pollutants of concern with ubiquitous presence in global ecosystems. MNPs pose potential implications for human health; however, the health impacts of MNP exposures are not yet understood. Recent evidence suggests that MNPs can cross the placental barrier, underlying the urgent need to understand their impact on reproductive health and development. Objective: The Actionable eUropean ROadmap for early-life health Risk Assessment of micro- and nanoplastics (AURORA) project will investigate MNP exposures and their biological and health effects during pregnancy and early life, which are critical periods due to heightened vulnerability to environmental stressors. The AURORA project will enhance exposure assessment capabilities for measuring MNPs, MNP-associated chemicals, and plastic additives in human tissues, including placenta and blood. Methods: In this interdisciplinary project, we will advance methods for in-depth characterization and scalable chemical analytical strategies, enabling high-resolution and large-scale toxicological, exposure assessment, and epidemiological studies. The AURORA project performs observational studies to investigate determinants and health impacts of MNPs by including 800 mother-child pairs from 2 existing birth cohorts and 110 women of reproductive age from a newly established cohort. This will be complemented by toxicological studies using a tiered-testing approach and epidemiological investigations to evaluate associations between maternal and prenatal MNP exposures and health perturbations, such as placental function, immune-inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, accelerated aging, endocrine disruption, and child growth and development. The ultimate goal of the AURORA project is to create an MNP risk assessment framework and identify the remaining knowledge gaps and priorities needed to comprehensively assess the impact of MNPs on early-life health. Results: In the first 3 years of this 5-year project (2021-2026), progress was made toward all objectives. This includes completion of recruitment and data collection for new and existing cohorts, development of analytical methodological protocols, and initiation of the toxicological tiered assessments. As of September 2024, data analysis is ongoing and results are expected to be published starting in 2025. Conclusions: As plastic pollution increases globally, it is imperative to understand the impact of MNPs on human health, particularly during vulnerable developmental stages such as early life. The contributions of the AURORA project will inform future risk assessment. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/63176
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BackgroundSelf-citationDusza, H. M., van Boxel, J., van Duursen, M. B. M., Forsberg, M., Legler, J., & Vähäkangas, K. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160403 · Cited by 87 · cited 4× · see citing works
“We reviewed the models for assessing placental uptake, transport, and toxicity of MNPs [34] and optimized the BeWo/HUVEC coculture model, and the BeWo/HUVEC/H295R triculture.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationHuber, M. J., Ivleva, N. P., Booth, A. M., Beer, I., Bianchi, I., Drexel, R., Geiss, O., Méhn, D., Meier, F., Molska, A., et al. (2023) · Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry · doi:10.1007/s00216-023-04689-5 · Cited by 78 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Mass-based assessment of MNPs using high-resolution mass spectrometry coupled with pyrolysis (Py-GC/HRMS), chemical profile assessment, and complementary spectro-microscopic characterization have emerged as promising approaches [19-21].”
BackgroundMethodMicroplastics in maternal amniotic fluid and their associations with gestational age
Xue, J., Xu, Z., Hu, X., Lü, Y., Zhao, Y. M., & Zhang, H. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171044 · Cited by 73 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In recent small-scale human studies, an inverse association between MNPs in amniotic fluid and gestational age was found, and placental MNPs were linked to intrauterine growth restriction [82,83].”
BackgroundBiocompatible Label-Free Detection of Carbon Black Particles by Femtosecond Pulsed Laser Microscopy
Bové, H., Steuwe, C., Fron, E., Slenders, E., D’Haen, J., Fujita, Y., Uji‐i, H., vandeVen, M., Roeffaers, M. B. J., & Ameloot, M. M. (2016) · Nano Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b00502 · Cited by 73 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Thus, we will first focus on developing and applying innovative spectro-microscopic techniques, such as atomic force microscopy, confocal fluorescence microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy to characterize NPs [42,43].”
BackgroundMicroplastics are everywhere — we need to understand how they affect human health
(2024) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-024-02968-x · Cited by 70 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As the burden of plastic in the environment increases, more evidence about how MNPs affect human health is essential [4,84].”
BackgroundSpectro‐Microscopic Techniques for Studying Nanoplastics in the Environment and in Organisms
Mandemaker, L. D. B., & Meirer, F. (2022) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.202210494 · Cited by 69 · cited 3× · see citing works
“However, additional advancements are required for the detection of NPs [20,21].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationPolystyrene micro- and nanoplastics cause placental dysfunction in mice
Dibbon, K., Mercer, G. V., Maekawa, A. S., Hanrahan, J., Steeves, K. L., Ringer, L. C. M., Simpson, A. J., Simpson, M. J., Baschat, A., Kingdom, J. C., et al. (2023) · Biology of Reproduction · doi:10.1093/biolre/ioad126 · Cited by 65 · cited 1× · see citing works
“[80,81].”
Decomposition of the Total Effect in the Presence of Multiple Mediators and Interactions.
Bellavia, A., & Valeri, L. (2018) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwx355 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Moreover, mediation analyses will be performed to evaluate system homeostasis markers, using models that accommodate multiple and high dimensional mediators [67,68].”
MethodResearch on nanoparticles in human perfused placenta: State of the art and perspectives
Aengenheister, L., Fávaro, R. R., Prieto, D. M. M., Furer, L. A., Gruber, M., Wadsack, C., Markert, U. R., & Buerki‐Thurnherr, T. (2020) · Placenta · doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2020.12.014 · Cited by 57 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It has been observed that not only endogenous but also exogenous compounds, including engineered metallic and carbonaceous nanoparticles, can cross the placenta barrier [27,28].”
BackgroundPhoto-induced force microscopy (PiFM) - principles and implementations.
Sifat, A., Jahng, J., & Potma, E. (2022) · Chemical Society Reviews · doi:10.1039/d2cs00052k · Cited by 54 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Thus, we will first focus on developing and applying innovative spectro-microscopic techniques, such as atomic force microscopy, confocal fluorescence microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy to characterize NPs [42,43].”
BackgroundThe impact of microplastics on female reproduction and early life
Yang, J., Kamstra, J. H., Legler, J., & Aardema, H. (2023) · Animal Reproduction · doi:10.1590/1984-3143-ar2023-0037 · Cited by 48 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Currently , research investigating the potential risk MNPs may pose to early-life health in mammals remains limited [18,22,30,32,79].”
BackgroundSelf-citationEarly life exposure to phthalates and the development of childhood asthma among Canadian children
Navaranjan, G., Diamond, M. L., Harris, S. A., Jantunen, L. M., Bernstein, S., Scott, J. A., Takaro, T. K., Dai, R., Lefebvre, D. L., Azad, M. B., et al. (2021) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110981 · Cited by 48 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Due to the absence of prior knowledge on the effect size of MNPs, we referred to a study which reported an increased risk of asthma (odds ratio [OR] 1.6-3.9) in Canadian children exposed to high phthalate concentrations in house dust [72].”
BackgroundInfluentialLite, C., Arul, G. L. R., Juliet, M., Sridhar, V. V., Subhashree, K. D., Issac, P. K., Chakraborty, P., & Arockiaraj, J. (2021) · Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.etap.2021.103779 · Cited by 47 · cited 1× · see citing works
“During gestation and early life, the developing fetus is highly vulnerable to environmental stressors, including chemical exposures, due to rapid organogenesis and developmental plasticity [24].”
BackgroundLenters, V., Vermeulen, R., & Portengen, L. (2017) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2016-104231 · Cited by 42 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We will use single-exposure-outcome regression modeling adjusted for covariates, as well as complementary exposure-wide modeling for MNPs and MNP-associated chemicals, including multivariable variable selection and machine learning approaches [62-64].”
MethodSelf-citationProtocol for the production of micro- and nanoplastic test materials
Parker, L. A., Höppener, E. M., van Amelrooij, E. F., Henke, S., Kooter, I., Grigoriadi, K., Nooijens, M., Brunner, A. M., & Boersma, A. (2023) · Microplastics and Nanoplastics · doi:10.1186/s43591-023-00058-2 · Cited by 39 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, the advancement of toxicological models requires the availability of well-defined, comparable, and representative MNPs that span a diverse range of polymers, sizes, and shapes [47].”
BackgroundImpacts of micro- and nanoplastics on early-life health: a roadmap towards risk assessment
Christopher, E. A., Vries, Y. C., Devadoss, A., Mandemaker, L. D. B., van Boxel, J., Copsey, H., Dusza, H. M., Legler, J., Meirer, F., Muncke, J., et al. (2024) · Microplastics and Nanoplastics · doi:10.1186/s43591-024-00089-3 · Cited by 38 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We completed the systematic evidence mapping and initial roadmap addressing risk assessment for MNPs in early life, highlighting the current challenges and limitations [78].”
MethodSelf-citationWong, M. K., Li, E. W., Adam, M., Selvaganapathy, P. R., & Raha, S. (2020) · Molecular Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/molehr/gaaa018 · Cited by 35 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…will be investigated with additional monolayer cell cultures, including the human adenocarcinoma cell line (H295R) and human trophoblast stem cells, as well as more complex coculture cellular models such as BeWo/Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and BeWo/HUVEC/H295R triculture [57-59].”
BackgroundCohort Profile: Barcelona Life Study Cohort (BiSC)
Dadvand, P., Gascón, M., Bustamante, M., Rivas, I., Foraster, M., Basagaña, X., Cosín‐Tomás, M., Eixarch, E., Ferrer, M., Gratacós, E., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyae063 · Cited by 34 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The Barcelona Life Study Cohort (BiSC) has recruited 1080 mother-child pairs residing in the Barcelona metropolitan area, Spain, during the years 2018-2021 with the overall aim of investigating the impact of the early-life exposome on maternal and child health and development [40].”
Self-citationUnraveling the micro- and nanoplastic predicament: A human-centric insight
Boever, S. D., Devisscher, L., & Vinken, M. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170262 · Cited by 26 · cited 1× · see citing works
“There is growing evidence that MNPs can be detected in human tissues, including blood and placenta tissue [16-18].”
BackgroundCriteria and challenges of the human placental perfusion – Data from a large series of perfusions.
Karttunen, V., Sahlman, H., Repo, J., Woo, C., Myöhänen, K., Myllynen, P., & Vähäkangas, K. (2015) · Toxicology in Vitro · doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2015.06.001 · Cited by 25 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Transplacental transfer and toxicity markers will be assessed upon exposure to selected MNPs in the human placental perfusion model [60].”
BackgroundCai, A., Rémy, S., Lenters, V. C., Cox, B., Schoeters, G. E. R., Covaci, A., Vermeulen, R. C. H., & Portengen, L. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c07607 · Cited by 23 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Moreover, mediation analyses will be performed to evaluate system homeostasis markers, using models that accommodate multiple and high dimensional mediators [67,68].”
MethodSelf-citationPaz, L. G., Navarrete, L. V., Roma, J., Blat-Guimerà, E., Benavent-Àreu, J., Bartra, J., & Sisó‐Almirall, A. (2023) · Archivos de Bronconeumología · doi:10.1016/j.arbres.2023.05.005 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Vazakidou, P., Koopmans, C., Grimberg, S., Evangelista, S., Koekkoek, J. C., Lamoree, M. H., Leonards, P. E. G., & van Duursen, M. B. M. (2021) · Toxicology Letters · doi:10.1016/s0378-4274(21)00401-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
15 of the 92 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Early Roots of Childhood Obesity: Risk Factors, Mechanisms, and Prevention Strategies
Umano, G. R., Bellone, S., Buganza, R., Calcaterra, V., Corica, D., SANCTIS, L. D., Sessa, A. D., Faienza, M. F., Improda, N., Licenziati, M. R., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26157388 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Several studies report that MPs can be found in the human placenta [155–157].”
Sheng, Q., Liu, B., Wang, X. D., Hua, L., Zhao, S.-C., Sun, X.-Z., Li, M., Zhang, X., Wang, J.-X., & Hu, P.-L. (2025) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-025-04169-y · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Integrated exposomics platforms combine functional screening tools (e.g., zebrafish embryotoxic-ity assays, human induced pluripotent stem cell models) to dissect mechanistic links between environmental exposures and adverse outcomes (Durkin et al. 2024; Hopf et al. 2024; Lai et al. 2024).”
Prenatal microplastic exposure and umbilical cord blood androgenic and glucocorticoid hormones
Liu, B., Zheng, D., Wang, J., Wang, D., Zhang, S., & Chu, D. (2025) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118827 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Andonotopo, W., Bachnas, M. A., Dewantiningrum, J., Pramono, M. B. A., Sanjaya, I. N. H., Stanojević, M., & Kurjak, A. (2025) · Sarvodaya International Journal of Medicine · doi:10.4103/sijm.sijm_24_25 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Moulton, C., Baroni, A., & Tasciotti, E. (2026) · Journal of Xenobiotics · doi:10.3390/jox16020052 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Integration of exposomics, multi-omics biomarkers of aging, exposure–response modelling, and advanced analytics represents a widely recognized path forward to move beyond association toward causal inference [25,156,198,217].”
Lee, S. (2026) · Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods · doi:10.1080/15376516.2025.2584495 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“From a regulatory perspective, the ability of NPs to cross the placental barrier highlights the need for reevaluating environmental exposure thresholds during pregnancy and determining the generational risk in toxicological assessments (Durkin et al. 2024; Wan et al. 2024) (Figure 7).”
Lee, S. (2025) · Toxicological Research · doi:10.1007/s43188-025-00331-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Towards regulatory readiness: evaluating frameworks for microplastic health risk assessment
Koelmans, A. A., Bouwmeester, H., Christopher, E. A., Coffin, S., Haase, A., Lane, T., Legler, J., Vermeulen, R. C. H., Visser, M., Vogel, A., et al. (2026) · Microplastics and Nanoplastics · doi:10.1186/s43591-026-00199-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“These are the frameworks of SCC-WRP [16], MICROPLASTICLAB [12, 17–24], AURORA [25, 26], POLYRISK [27], PLASTICHEAL [28], and MOMENTUM [29].”
Self-citationA Critical Evaluation of Nano‐ and Microplastics: Sources, Health Risks, and Mitigation Strategies
Njema, G. G., Agoro, M. A., & Kibet, J. K. (2026) · Advances in Materials Science and Engineering · doi:10.1155/amse/1357400 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Fioretto, M. N., Pinha, V. C., Basso, C. B. P., de Souza, P. V., Magosso, N. S. S., Moreira, M. F., Rocha, V. A., Justulin, L. A., & Scarano, W. R. (2025) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2025.127413 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Nishanthini, B., Yazhini, A., Kumar, P., Saravanan, P., Rajeshkannan, R., Rajasimman, M., & Kumar, S. V. (2026) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2026.125878
Micro- and nanoplastics in pediatric health: from placental transfer to neurodevelopmental outcomes
Misra, S. C., & Mukhopadhyay, K. (2026) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-026-05419-0
The Effects of Microplastics and Nanoplastics (MNPs) on Chronic Airway Inflammation
Fragkou, P. C., Harfouch, R., Majumder, S., Das, M. C., Karamya, Z. A., Demokritou, P., & Skevaki, C. L. (2026) · Environment & Health · doi:10.1021/envhealth.5c00767
Durkin, A., Scholz‐Böttcher, B. M., Balding, L. C., van Santbrink, B., Lenters, V. C., Zou, R., Gehring, U., & Vermeulen, R. C. H. (2026) · Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances · doi:10.1016/j.hazadv.2026.101535
Self-citationMicro and Nanoplastics and Obstetric Outcomes in Humans and Animals: A Systematic Review
Álamo, B. N.-D., Martínez-Varea, A., Ontoria-Oviedo, I., Ruiz-Gaitán, A., Cosemans, C., Plusquin, M., & Marcos-Puig, B. (2026) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph23050672
“…ultrafine particulate matter and micro-nano plastics’ mechanisms of impact on fetal health ) [61]; DIMPLE ( Developmental impacts of microplastics exposure in early life ) [62]; and AURORA ( Investigating Exposure and Hazards of Micro-and Nanoplastics During Pregnancy and Early Life ) [63].”
Khasanov, R., Boettcher, M., Wessel, L. M., Schãfer, K.-H., & Tapia-Laliena, M. Á. (2026) · Frontiers in Toxicology · doi:10.3389/ftox.2026.1756622
“Currently, a European project (AURORA) is underway to assess the effects of MPs exposure during pregnancy and early life (Durkin et al., 2024).”
Nanoplastics at the Placenta–Fetal Interface: Emerging Chemical Toxicology Concerns
Rasin, P., Prabhakaran, P., & Haribabu, J. (2026) · Chemical Research in Toxicology · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6c00015
Lukas, E., Andonotopo, W., Pramono, M. B. A., Dewantiningrum, J., Prabowo, W., Bachnas, M. A., Sanjaya, I. N. H., Wiradnyana, A. A. G. P., Kusuma, A. A. N. J., Gumilar, K. E., et al. (2025) · Environmental Disease · doi:10.4103/ed.ed_23_25
- Authors
- Durkin, A. M., Zou, R., Boucher, J. M., Boyles, M. S., van Boxel, J., Bustamante, M., Christopher, E. A., Dadvand, P., Dusza, H. M., van Duursen, M., Forsberg, M. M., Galea, K. S., Legler, J., Mandemaker, L. D., Meirer, F., Muncke, J., Nawrot, T. S., Přibylová, P., Robuck, A. R., Saenen, N. D., Scholz-Böttcher, B. M., Shao, K., Vrijheid, M., Walker, D. I., Zimmermann, L., Zoutendijk, L. M., Lenters, V., & Vermeulen, R.
- Affiliations
- Utrecht University (NL)
- Food Packaging Forum Foundation (CH)
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (ES)
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (GB)
- University of Eastern Finland (FI)
- Hasselt University (BE)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Emory University (US)
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Vermeulen, Roel
- ORCID
- Durkin, Amanda M
- Zou, Runyu
- Boucher, Justin M
- Boyles, Matthew SP
- van Boxel, Jeske
- Bustamante, Mariona
- Christopher, Emily A
- Dadvand, Payam
- Dusza, Hanna M
- van Duursen, Majorie
- Forsberg, Markus M
- Galea, Karen S
- Legler, Juliette
- Mandemaker, Laurens DB
- Meirer, Florian
- Muncke, Jane
- Nawrot, Tim S
- Přibylová, Petra
- Robuck, Anna R
- Saenen, Nelly D
- Scholz-Böttcher, Barbara M
- Shao, Kuanliang
- Vrijheid, Martine
- Walker, Douglas I
- Zimmermann, Lisa
- Zoutendijk, Laura M
- Lenters, Virissa
- Vermeulen, Roel
- Venue
- JMIR Research Protocols
- Publisher
- JMIR Publications Inc.
- Published
- 2024-10-08
- Volume
- 13
- Pages
- e63176
- ISSN
- 1929-0748 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11496927
- OpenAlex
- W4403204908
- Cited by
- 18
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 9
- FWCI
- 1.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JMIR Research Protocols (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Napier Research Repository (Edinburgh Napier University) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- Document Server@UHasselt (UHasselt) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Repositori digital de la UPF (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- VU Research Portal (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- European Commission (964827, 857560, HORIZON2020)
- RECETOX Přírodovědecké Fakulty Masarykovy Univerzity (857560)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Effects and risks of endocrine disrupting chemicals
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- micro- and nanoplastics, prenatal exposure, pregnancy, early life, placenta, polymer additives, maternal and child health, placental function, immune-inflammatory response, oxidative stress, accelerated aging, endocrine disruption, child growth and development, risk assessment, exposure assessment, birth cohort, plastic pollution, AURORA project
- MeSH terms
- Microplastics, Adult, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Risk Assessment, Maternal Exposure, Nanoparticles
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