Sampling and Quality Assurance and Quality Control: A Guide for Scientists Investigating the Occurrence of Microplastics Across Matrices
Abstract
Plastic pollution is a defining environmental contaminant and is considered to be one of the greatest environmental threats of the Anthropocene, with its presence documented across aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The majority of this plastic debris falls into the micro (1 μm–5 mm) or nano (1–1000 nm) size range and comes from primary and secondary sources. Its small size makes it cumbersome to isolate and analyze reproducibly, and its ubiquitous distribution creates numerous challenges when controlling for background contamination across matrices (e.g., sediment, tissue, water, air). Although research on microplastics represents a relatively nascent subfield, burgeoning interest in questions surrounding the fate and effects of these debris items creates a pressing need for harmonized sampling protocols and quality control approaches. For results across laboratories to be reproducible and comparable, it is imperative that guidelines based on vetted protocols be readily available to research groups, many of which are either new to plastics research or, as with any new subfield, have arrived at current approaches through a process of trial-and-error rather than in consultation with the greater scientific community. The goals of this manuscript are to (i) outline the steps necessary to conduct general as well as matrix-specific quality assurance and quality control based on sample type and associated constraints, (ii) briefly review current findings across matrices, and (iii) provide guidance for the design of sampling regimes. Specific attention is paid to the source of microplastic pollution as well as the pathway by which contamination occurs, with details provided regarding each step in the process from generating appropriate questions to sampling design and collection.
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The LOD was calculated as the mean plus three times the standard deviation and was used to exclude particles from samples below the LOD.
“The LOD was calculated as the mean plus three times the standard deviation (SD) and was used to exclude particles from samples that were below the LOD.53”
From Microplastics and Anthropogenic Particles in Recreationally Caught Freshwater Fish from an Urbanized Region of the North American Great Lakes (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
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Self-citationFirst evidence of microplastics in Antarctic snow
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Self-citationAn audit of microplastic abundance throughout three Australian wastewater treatment plants
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Self-citationA Complete Guide to Extraction Methods of Microplastics from Complex Environmental Matrices
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Self-citationBlanks and bias in microplastic research: Implications for future quality assurance
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Previous successes and untapped potential of pyrolysis–GC/MS for the analysis of plastic pollution
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Microplastic pollution in drinking water
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Risk posed by microplastics: Scientific evidence and public perception
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Exposure of U.S. adults to microplastics from commonly-consumed proteins
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Concentration of microplastics in bivalves of the environment: a systematic review
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The Abundance of Microplastics in the World’s Oceans: A Systematic Review
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Microplastics in sea surface waters around Scotland
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Estimated discharge of microplastics via urban stormwater during individual rain events
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Self-citationCritical gaps in nanoplastics research and their connection to risk assessment
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Self-citationMicroplastics variability in subsurface water from Arctic to Antarctic.
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Microplastics analytics: why we should not underestimate the importance of blank controls
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Abundance and distribution of microplastics in surface waters of the Kattegat/ Skagerrak (Denmark)
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Microplastics occurrence and fate in the environment
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Thrushes (Aves: Passeriformes) as indicators of microplastic pollution in terrestrial environments
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Self-citationModelling the transfer and accumulation of microplastics in a riverine freshwater food web
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Analytical challenges in detecting microplastics and nanoplastics in soil-plant systems
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Comparison and uncertainty evaluation of two centrifugal separators for microplastic sampling
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Sampling of micro- and nano-plastics in environmental matrixes
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Microplastic Removal from Drinking Water Using Point-of-Use Devices
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Effect of Nanoplastic Type and Surface Chemistry on Particle Agglomeration over a Salinity Gradient
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Self-citationHow many microplastics do you need to (sub)sample?
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Risk characterization of microplastics in San Francisco Bay, California
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Artificial Intelligence-Powered Raman Spectroscopy through Open Science and FAIR Principles
Coca-López, N., Alcolea-Rodriguez, V., Bañares, M. Á., Brockhauser, S., Gorenflot, J., Henderson, A., Hildebrandt, R., Jeliazkova, N., Kochev, N. T., Diz, E. L., et al. (2025) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.5c09165 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Praveena, S. M., & Laohaprapanon, S. (2021) · Food Control · doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108285 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Rashed, A. H., Yeşilay, G., Hazeem, L. J., Rashdan, S. A., AlMealla, R. K., Kilinc, Z., Ali, F., Abdulrasool, F., & Kamel, A. H. (2023) · Water · doi:10.3390/w15203535 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Nayebi, B., Khurana, P., Pulicharla, R., Karimpour, S., & Brar, S. K. (2023) · Environmental Science Advances · doi:10.1039/d3va00043e · Cited by 40 · see citing works
De-la-Torre, G. E., Santillán, L., Dioses-Salinas, D. C., Yenney, E., Toapanta, T. Y. A., Okoffo, E. D., Kannan, G., Madadi, R., & Dobaradaran, S. (2024) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141870 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Li, W., Chen, X., Cai, Z., Li, M., Liu, Z., Gong, H., & Yan, M. (2022) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119385 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Garcés-Ordóñez, O., Castillo-Olaya, V. A., Espinosa-Díaz, L. F., & Canals, M. (2023) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115210 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
da Costa, I. D., Costa, L. L., & Zalmon, I. R. (2023) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139493 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
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Self-citationHampton, L. M. T., Frond, H. D., Gesulga, K., Kotar, S., Lao, W., Matuch, C., Weisberg, S. B., Wong, C. S., Brander, S. M., Christansen, S., et al. (2023) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138875 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
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Historical microplastic records in marine sediments: Current progress and methodological evaluation
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- Authors
- Brander, S. M., Renick, V. C., Foley, M. M., Steele, C., Woo, M., Lusher, A., Carr, S., Helm, P., Box, C., Cherniak, S., Andrews, R. C., & Rochman, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Oregon State University (US)
- Environmental Services Department, Orange County Sanitation District, Fountain Valley, USA
- San Francisco Estuary Institute (US)
- California State University, Channel Islands (US)
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NO)
- San Jose Creek Water Quality Laboratory, County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles, Whittier, USA
- Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks (CA)
- The 5 Gyres Institute, Los Angeles, USA
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Brander, Susanne M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Applied Spectroscopy
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2020-09
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1099-1125
- ISSN
- 0003-7028 (ISSN-L)
- 1943-3530
- OpenAlex
- W3041758622
- Cited by
- 389
- References
- 209
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 11
- FWCI
- 11.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Applied Spectroscopy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- NOAA Marine Debris Research (#NA17NOS9990025)
- Oregon Agricultural Research Foundation
- National Science Foundation (GCR-1935028)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Analytical Chemistry › Analytical chemistry methods development
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Environmental and Analytical Chemistry Studies
- Keywords
- microplastics, sampling protocols, quality assurance, quality control, plastic pollution, background contamination, sampling design, sediment, tissues, water, air, reproducibility, contamination pathways
- MeSH terms
- Microplastics, Environmental Monitoring, Environmental Pollutants, Quality Control, Specimen Handling, Guidelines as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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