The Ecology of Fear: Optimal Foraging, Game Theory, and Trophic Interactions
Abstract
Mammalian predator-prey systems are behaviorally sophisticated games of stealth and fear. But, traditional mass-action models of predator prey dynamics treat individuals as behaviorally unresponsive “molecules” in Brownian motion. Foraging theory should provide the conceptual framework to envision the interaction. But, current models of predator feeding behavior generally envision a clever predator consuming large numbers of sessile and behaviorally inert prey (e.g., kangaroo rats, Dipodomys, collecting seeds from food patches). Here, we extend foraging theory to consider a predator-prey game of stealth and fear and then embed this game into the modeling of predator-prey population dynamics. The melding of the prey and predator's optimal behaviors with their population and community-level consequences constitutes the ecology of fear. The ecology of fear identifies the endpoints of a continuum of N-driven (population size) versus μ-driven (fear) systems. In N-driven systems, the major direct dynamical feedback involves predators killing prey, whereas μ-driven systems involve the indirect effects from changes in fear levels and prey catchability. In μ-driven systems, prey respond to predators by becoming more vigilant or by moving away from suspected predators. In this way, a predator (e.g., mountain lion, Puma concolor) depletes a food patch (e.g., local herd of mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus) by frightening prey rather than by actually killing prey. Behavior buffers the syste…
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When wolves were present in the upper Gallatin Basin, their effects on elk were primarily direct predation and behavioral mediation of herbivory patterns.
“When wolves were present in the upper Gallatin Basin, their effects upon elk were primarily twofold: (1) they could affect elk populations through direct predation and (2) they could behaviorally mediate patterns of herbivory (Brown et al., 1999;Ripple and Beschta, 2004a).”
From River channel dynamics following extirpation of wolves in northwestern Yellowstone National Park, USA (2006) · cites this paper as Brown et al., 1999
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- Authors
- Brown, J. S., Laundre, J. W., & Gurung, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Mammalogy
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1999-05-20
- Volume
- 80
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 385-399
- ISSN
- 0022-2372 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-1542
- OpenAlex
- W2005745339
- Cited by
- 1,347
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 76 · 2025: 116 · 2024: 95 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 59 · 2013: 56 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 12.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Mammalogy (publishedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Mathematical and Theoretical Epidemiology and Ecology Models
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Keywords
- ecology of fear, predator-prey interactions, optimal foraging theory, game theory, trophic interactions, predator-prey population dynamics, predator-prey coevolution
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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