Cited by 7,891Decision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsExperimental Behavioral Economics StudiesRisk Perception and Management

The DOI matches its Crossref record.

“Risk, Ambiguity, and the Savage Axioms.”

Ellsberg, Daniel·1961·The Quarterly Journal of Economics

DOI 10.2307/1884324

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

I. Are there uncertainties that are not risks? 643. — II. Uncertainties that are not risks, 647. — III. Why are some uncertainties not risks? — 656.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2307/1884324

Cites

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Sorted by citations

Items 701–800 of 1,005

Modeling effects of travel time reliability on mode choice using cumulative prospect theory
Ghader, S., Darzi, A., & Zhang, L. (2019) · Transportation Research Part C Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1016/j.trc.2019.09.014 · Cited by 99
What are the chances? Evaluating risk and benefit information in consumer health materials.
Burkell, J. (2004) · PubMed · Cited by 93
Macroeconomics for a Modern Economy
Phelps, E. S. (2007) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.97.3.543 · Cited by 95
A stock-flow consistent input–output model with applications to energy price shocks, interest rates, and heat emissions
Berg, M., Hartley, B., & Richters, O. (2015) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/17/1/015011 · Cited by 107
Decision Theory Without “Independence” or Without “Ordering”
Seidenfeld, T. (1988) · Economics and Philosophy · doi:10.1017/s0266267100001085 · Cited by 92
Towards a Positive Theory of Preferences under Risk
Hagen, O. (1979) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-015-7629-1_13 · Cited by 95
Early Experiments in Consumer Demand Theory: 1930-1970
Moscati, I. (2007) · History of Political Economy · doi:10.1215/00182702-2007-015 · Cited by 92
Ambiguity aversion and optimal derivative-based pension investment with stochastic income and volatility
Zeng, Y., Li, D., Chen, Z., et al. (2018) · Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control · doi:10.1016/j.jedc.2018.01.023 · Cited by 92
Transcranial Stimulation over Frontopolar Cortex Elucidates the Choice Attributes and Neural Mechanisms Used to Resolve Exploration–Exploitation Trade-Offs
Beharelle, A. R., Polanía, R., Hare, T. A., & Ruff, C. C. (2015) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2322-15.2015 · Cited by 92
Is Cost–Benefit Analysis Anomaly-Proof?
Hanley, N. D., & Shogren, J. F. (2005) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-005-6026-2 · Cited by 92
Decision making with imprecise probabilities: Dempster‐Shafer Theory and application
Caselton, W. F., & Luo, W. (1992) · Water Resources Research · doi:10.1029/92wr01818 · Cited by 92
Decision making with imprecise probabilistic information
Gajdos, T., Tallon, J., & Vergnaud, J. (2004) · Journal of Mathematical Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jmateco.2003.06.004 · Cited by 92
Fuzzy logic-based generalized decision theory with imperfect information
Aliev, R. A., Witold Pedrycz, C., Fazlollahi, B., Huseynov, O. H., Alizadeh, A. V., & Guirimov, B. G. (2011) · Information Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ins.2011.11.027 · Cited by 89
The effect of ambiguity on loss contingency reporting judgments
Nelson, M. W., & Kinney, W. R. (1997) · The Accounting Review · Cited by 88
Satisficing: Integrating Two Traditions
Artinger, F. M., Gigerenzer, G., & Jacobs, P. (2022) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.20201396 · Cited by 90
Uncertainty measurement with belief entropy on the interference effect in the quantum-like Bayesian Networks
Huang, Z., Yang, L. F., & Jiang, W. R. (2018) · Applied Mathematics and Computation · doi:10.1016/j.amc.2018.11.036 · Cited by 89
What a Feeling: The Role of Immediate and Anticipated Emotions in Risky Decisions
Schlösser, T. M., Dunning, D. A., & Fetchenhauer, D. (2011) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.757 · Cited by 96
What Makes a Good Decision? Robust Satisficing as a Normative Standard of Rational Decision Making
Schwartz, B. N., Ben‐Haim, Y., & Dacso, C. C. (2010) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2010.00450.x · Cited by 94
Ambiguity Models and the Machina Paradoxes
Baillon, A., L’Haridon, O., & Placido, L. (2011) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.101.4.1547 · Cited by 90
Bayesian decisions with ambiguous belief aversion
Viscusi, W. K., & Magat, W. A. (1992) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/bf00122576 · Cited by 85
Belief Elicitation in Experiments: Is There a Hedging Problem?Preprint
Blanco, M., Engelmann, D., Normann, H., et al. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1557803 · Cited by 90
Imperfect Knowledge and Monetary Policy
Gaspar, V., Issing, O., Tristani, O., et al. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511492426 · Cited by 89
Source-specific Exposure to Contradictory Nutrition Information: Documenting Prevalence and Effects on Adverse Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes
Lee, C., Nagler, R. H., & Wang, N. (2017) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2016.1278495 · Cited by 89
Toward a behavioral theory of real options: Noisy signals, bias, and learning
Posen, H. E., Leiblein, M. J., & Chen, J. S. (2017) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.2757 · Cited by 96
The effects of incomplete information on the formation of attitudes toward behavioral alternatives.
Jaccard, J. J., & Wood, G. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.580 · Cited by 89
Anytime versus Only: Mind-Sets Moderate the Effect of Expansive versus Restrictive Frames on Promotion Evaluation
Cheema, A., & Patrick, V. M. (2008) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.4.462 · Cited by 88
Axiomatic methods, dopamine and reward prediction error
Caplin, A., & Dean, M. (2008) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2008.07.007 · Cited by 88
Effects of Media Exposure to Conflicting Information About Mammography: Results From a Population-based Survey Experiment
Nagler, R. H., Yzer, M. C., & Rothman, A. J. (2018) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kay098 · Cited by 90
The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-70634-9_6 · Cited by 104
A simplified axiomatic approach to ambiguity aversion
Neilson, W. S. (2010) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/s11166-010-9099-4 · Cited by 88
The Regional Dimension of Knowledge Transfers—A Behavioral Approach
Broekel, T., & Binder, M. (2007) · Industry and Innovation · doi:10.1080/13662710701252500 · Cited by 95
Treatment decisions under ambiguity
Berger, L., Bleichrodt, H., & Eeckhoudt, L. (2013) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2013.02.001 · Cited by 88
Ambiguity and robust statistics
Cerreia‐Vioglio, S., Maccheroni, F., Marinacci, M., et al. (2013) · Journal of Economic Theory · doi:10.1016/j.jet.2012.10.003 · Cited by 88
The effect of ambiguous risk, and coordination on farmers' adaptation to climate change — A framed field experiment
Alpízar, F., Carlsson, F., & Naranjo, M. A. (2011) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.07.004 · Cited by 88
Why environmental and resource economists should care about non-expected utility models
Shaw, W. D., & Woodward, R. T. (2007) · Resource and Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.reseneeco.2007.05.001 · Cited by 88
THEORIES OF CHOICE UNDER IGNORANCE AND UNCERTAINTY
Kelsey, D. H., & Quiggin, J. C. (1992) · Journal of Economic Surveys · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6419.1992.tb00148.x · Cited by 88
How much ambiguity aversion?
Binmore, K., Stewart, L., & Voorhoeve, A. (2012) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/s11166-012-9155-3 · Cited by 83
Using Field Experiments to Elicit Risk and Ambiguity Preferences: Behavioural Factors and the Adoption of New Agricultural Technologies in Rural India
Ward, P. S., & Singh, V. (2015) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2014.989996 · Cited by 99
Amygdala Functional and Structural Connectivity Predicts Individual Risk Tolerance
Jung, W. H., Lee, S., Lerman, C. E., & Kable, J. W. (2018) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.03.019 · Cited by 85
A scoping review of practice recommendations for clinicians’ communication of uncertainty
Medendorp, N. M., Stiggelbout, A. M., Aalfs, C. M., Han, P. K. J., Smets, E. M. A., & Hillen, M. A. (2021) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13255 · Cited by 90
Behavioral economics: a history
(2014) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.52-0960 · Cited by 88
On the social nature of eyes: The effect of social cues in interaction and individual choice tasks
Baillon, A., Selim, A., & van Dolder, D. (2013) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.12.001 · Cited by 94
Rationality of belief or: why savage’s axioms are neither necessary nor sufficient for rationality
Gilboa, I., Postlewaite, A., & Schmeidler, D. (2011) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-011-0034-2 · Cited by 85
Social Influences on Risk Attitudes: Applications in Economics
Trautmann, S. T., & Vieider, F. M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1433-5_22 · Cited by 93
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON ASSET PRICING
NOUSSAIR, C. N., & Tucker, S. J. (2013) · Journal of Economic Surveys · doi:10.1111/joes.12019 · Cited by 83
The Role of Insurance in Reducing Direct Risk - The Case of Flood Insurance
Surminski, S. (2014) · International Review of Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1561/101.00000062 · Cited by 86
Expectation and Variation in Multi-Period Decisions
Gilboa, I. (1989) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/1913626 · Cited by 86
Scale convergence and utility measurement
Birnbaum, M. H., & Sutton, S. E. (1992) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(92)90035-6 · Cited by 81
Evaluation and Decision Models A Critical Perspective
Denis Bouyssou, A., Thierry Marchant, C., Pirlot, M., Mons, F. P. D., Perny, P., & Tsoukiàs, A. (2000) · International series in management science/operations research/International series in operations research & management science · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1593-7 · Cited by 90
A dynamic Ellsberg urn experiment
Dominiak, A., Duersch, P., & Lefort, J.-P. (2012) · Games and Economic Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.geb.2012.01.002 · Cited by 77
A Comparison of Bayesian and Belief Function Reasoning
Cobb, B. R., & Shenoy, P. P. (2003) · Information Systems Frontiers · doi:10.1023/b:isfi.0000005650.63806.03 · Cited by 85
How product and process knowledge enable consumer switching to remanufactured laptop computers in circular economy
Wang, Y., Zhu, Q., Krikke, H., & Hazen, B. (2020) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120275 · Cited by 89
Intolerance of Uncertainty Is Associated With Increased Threat Appraisal and Negative Affect Under Ambiguity but Not Uncertainty
Chen, J. T.-H., & Lovibond, P. F. (2015) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2015.09.004 · Cited by 86
A Review and Systematization of the Trolley Problem
Bruers, S., & Braeckman, J. (2013) · Philosophia · doi:10.1007/s11406-013-9507-5 · Cited by 84
Risk Aversion and the Long Run
Thoma, J. (2018) · Ethics · doi:10.1086/699256 · Cited by 87
Optimal insurance under rank‐dependent utility and incentive compatibility
Xu, Z. Q., Zhou, X. Y., & Zhuang, S. C. (2018) · Mathematical Finance · doi:10.1111/mafi.12185 · Cited by 84
An explainable multi-attribute decision model based on argumentation
Zhong, Q., Fan, X., Luo, X., & Toni, F. (2018) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2018.09.038 · Cited by 82
Tourism and Trust: Theoretical Reflections
Williams, A. M., & Baláž, V. (2020) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287520961177 · Cited by 97
Uncertainty Makes Me Emotional: Uncertainty as an Elicitor and Modulator of Emotional States
Morriss, J., Tupitsa, E., Dodd, H. F., & Hirsch, C. R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.777025 · Cited by 98
Laypersons' Responses to the Communication of Uncertainty Regarding Cancer Risk Estimates
Han, P. K. J., Klein, W. M. P., Lehman, T. C., Massett, H. A., Lee, S. J. C., & Freedman, A. N. (2009) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x08327396 · Cited by 83
A Bayesian Approach to Uncertainty Aversion
Halevy, Y., & Feltkamp, V. (2005) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-937x.2005.00339.x · Cited by 76
Should we beware of the Precautionary Principle?
Gollier, C. (2001) · Economic Policy · doi:10.1111/1468-0327.00077 · Cited by 84
Image Ambiguity and Fluency
Jakesch, M., Leder, H., & Forster, M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074084 · Cited by 82
Academic Journal of Economic Studies
Editura.Universitara, P. (2020) · Cited by 83
Ambiguity aversion and familiarity bias: Evidence from behavioral and gene association studies
Chew, S. H., Ebstein, R. P., & Zhong, S. (2011) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/s11166-011-9134-0 · Cited by 83
The appeal of vague financial forecasts
Du, N., Budescu, D. V., Shelly, M. K., & Omer, T. C. (2010) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.10.005 · Cited by 82
Taming the beast: extracting generalizable knowledge from computational models of cognition
Nassar, M. R., & Frank, M. J. (2016) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.04.003 · Cited by 91
Rank-dependent, subjective expected-utility representations
Luce, R. D. (1988) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/bf00056140 · Cited by 82
Specifications of Social Welfare in Economic Studies of Climate Policy: Overview of Criteria and Related Policy Insights
Botzen, W. J. W., & van den Bergh, J. C. J. M. (2013) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-013-9738-8 · Cited by 83
Risk and ambiguity in 10-Ks: An examination of cash holding and derivatives use
Friberg, R., & Seiler, T. (2017) · Journal of Corporate Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2017.05.017 · Cited by 82
Who needs explanation and when? Juggling explainable AI and user epistemic uncertainty
Jiang, J., Kahai, S. S., & Yang, M. H. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2022.102839 · Cited by 92
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Geller, G. (2013) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e31828a4b8e · Cited by 82
Protecting the self from the negative consequences of risky decisions.
Josephs, R. A., Larrick, R. P., Steele, C. M., & Nisbett, R. E. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.62.1.26 · Cited by 302
Summarizing Risk Using Risk Measures and Risk Indices
MacKenzie, C. A. (2014) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.12220 · Cited by 82
Kurz und gut: Eine deutsche Kurzskala zur Erfassung des Bedürfnisses nach kognitiver Geschlossenheit
Schlink, S., & Walther, E. (2007) · Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1024/0044-3514.38.3.153 · Cited by 88
How users perceive and respond to security messages: a NeuroIS research agenda and empirical study
Anderson, B. B., Vance, A., Kirwan, C. B., Eargle, D., & Jenkins, J. L. (2016) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1057/ejis.2015.21 · Cited by 83
The More You Know: Information Effects on Job Application Rates in a Large Field Experiment
Gee, L. (2018) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2017.2994 · Cited by 94
Better the devil you know than the devil you don't: Neural processing of risk and ambiguity
Wu, S., Sun, S., Camilleri, J. A., Eickhoff, S. B., & Yu, R. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118109 · Cited by 78
Communicating future sea-level rise uncertainty and ambiguity to assessment users
Kopp, R. E., Oppenheimer, M., O’Reilly, J., Drijfhout, S., Edwards, T., Fox‐Kemper, B., Garner, G. G., Golledge, N. R., Hermans, T. H. J., Hewitt, H. T., et al. (2023) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-023-01691-8 · Cited by 103
Optimal insurance design of ambiguous risks
Gollier, C. (2014) · Economic Theory · doi:10.1007/s00199-014-0845-8 · Cited by 81
Safety is more than the antonym of risk
Möller, N., Hansson, O., & Peterson, M. (2006) · Journal of Applied Philosophy · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.2006.00345.x · Cited by 81
Additivity with multiple priors
Ghirardato, P., Klibanoff, P., & Marinacci, M. (1998) · Journal of Mathematical Economics · doi:10.1016/s0304-4068(97)00047-5 · Cited by 81
TRUST-BASED DECISION MAKING FOR ELECTRONIC TRANSACTIONS
Jøsang, A. (1999) · Cited by 81
Dominance-based Rough Set Approach to decision under uncertainty and time preference
Greco, S., Matarazzo, B., & Słowiński, R. (2009) · Annals of Operations Research · doi:10.1007/s10479-009-0566-8 · Cited by 80
Pricing Insurance and Warranties: Ambiguity and Correlated Risks
Hogarth, R. M., & Kunreuther, H. C. (1992) · The Geneva Risk and Insurance Review · doi:10.1007/bf00941956 · Cited by 78
Portfolio Choice and Risk Attitudes: An ExperimentPreprint
Charness, G. B., & Uri Gneezy, B. (2003) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.397300 · Cited by 82
From user equilibrium to system optimum: a literature review on the role of travel information, bounded rationality and non-selfish behaviour at the network and individual levels
van Essen, M. A., Thomas, T., van Berkum, E. C., & Chorus, C. G. (2016) · Transport Reviews · doi:10.1080/01441647.2015.1125399 · Cited by 84
The Effect of Learning on Ambiguity Attitudes
Baillon, A., Bleichrodt, H., Keskin, U., L’Haridon, O., & Li, C. (2017) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2016.2700 · Cited by 82
Debiasing investors with decision support systems: An experimental investigation
Bhandari, G., Hassanein, K., & Deaves, R. (2008) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2008.07.010 · Cited by 80
Physics of risk and uncertainty in quantum decision making
Yukalov, V. I., & Sornette, D. (2009) · The European Physical Journal B · doi:10.1140/epjb/e2009-00245-9 · Cited by 81
Financial Risk Tolerance
Grable, J. E. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28887-1_2 · Cited by 89
Machine Learning and Behavioral Economics: Evaluating Models of Choice Under Risk and Ambiguity
Peysakhovich, A., & Naecker, J. (2015) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2016.08.017 · Cited by 86
Macroeconomics after the Crisis: Time to Deal with the Pretense-of-Knowledge SyndromePreprint
Caballero, R. J. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1683617 · Cited by 80
AMBIGUITY ABOUT AUDIT PROBABILITY, TAX COMPLIANCE, AND TAXPAYER WELFARE
Snow, A., & Warren, R. S. (2005) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1093/ei/cbi066 · Cited by 80
Ignorance and Science
Smithson, M. J. (1993) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/107554709301500202 · Cited by 79
Perceived Ambiguity about Screening Mammography Recommendations: Association with Future Mammography Uptake and Perceptions
Han, P. K. J., Kobrin, S. C., Klein, W. M. P., Davis, W. W., Stefanek, M. E., & Taplin, S. H. (2007) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-06-0533 · Cited by 82
Familiarity Bias and Belief Reversal in Relative Likelihood Judgment
Fox, C. R., & Levav, J. (2000) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2000.2898 · Cited by 81
Neuroanatomy accounts for age-related changes in risk preferences
Grubb, M. A., Tymula, A. A., Gilaie‐Dotan, S., Glimcher, P. W., & Levy, I. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms13822 · Cited by 74
Opaque Trading, Disclosure, and Asset Prices: Implications for Hedge Fund Regulation
Easley, D. A., O’Hara, M., & Yang, L. (2013) · Review of Financial Studies · doi:10.1093/rfs/hht079 · Cited by 78
Risk, Information, and the Decision about Response to Wrongdoing in an Organization
McLain, D. L., & Keenan, J. P. (1999) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1023/a:1006168301995 · Cited by 83

Authors: Ellsberg, D.
Affiliations: RAND Corporation (US)
Corresponding author: Ellsberg, Daniel
Venue: The Quarterly Journal of Economics
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 1961-11
Volume: 75
Issue: 4
Pages: 643
ISSN: 0033-5533 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2307/1884324
OpenAlex: W2027047704
Cited by: 7,891
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 251 · 2025: 359 · 2024: 309 · 2023: 319 · 2022: 330 · 2021: 380 · 2020: 340 · 2019: 351 · 2018: 367 · 2017: 311 · 2016: 345 · 2015: 384 · 2014: 346 · 2013: 321 · 2012: 348
FWCI: 0.72
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: The Quarterly Journal of Economics (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
Keywords: risk, ambiguity, Savage axioms, expected utility theory, decision making under uncertainty, ambiguity aversion, subjective probability

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

“Risk, Ambiguity, and the Savage Axioms.”

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks