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Five Decades of Missing Females in China
Open accessAbstract
This paper seeks to explain the dearth of females in the population of China in cohorts born from the late 1930s to the present. We demonstrate that in virtually all cohorts. the shortage of females in comparison with males is revealed when the cohort is first enumerated in a census. Subsequently it barely changes, an indication that female losses occur very early in life. Using the high-quality data from the censuses and fertility surveys in China, we show that many of the births of the girls missing in the censuses were not reported in the surveys because they died very young. The incidence of excess early female mortality (probably infanticide) declined precipitously in the Communist period, but not to zero. The recent escalation in the proportion of young females missing in China has been caused largely by rapidly escalating sex-selective abortion.
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“Using high-quality demographic data collected or made available up to the 1990s,Coale & Banister (1994) documented the drop in the estimated excess female to male infant deaths ratio, from over 15% for births in the 1930s, 10% in the 1940s, and only about 2% for those born in the 1960s and 1970s, before edging up in the early 1980s.”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Coale & Banister 1994
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“Demographers have found an increasingly skewed Chinese gender ratio, which may result from female infanticide, parents' refusal to register daughters, parents' abandonment or lethal neglect of daughters, sex selection through selective abortion, or some combination of these factors (Arnold and Liu Zhaoxiang 1986;Coale and Banister 1994;Johnson 1996;Li Yongping and Peng Xizhe 2000;Zeng et al. 1993”
From China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters (2002) · cites this paper as Coale and Banister 1994
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“According to China's 1990 census, there were 1.083 males for every female born between 1980 and 1984 (Coale and Banister 1994:461), the period when most of my students were born.”
From China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters (2002) · cites this paper as Coale and Banister 1994:461
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“Soon after the one-child policy was put into force nationwide, sex ratio at birth, which had started to return to normal during the first decades of the socialist rule (Coale & Banister 1994), resumed an upward tick.”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Coale & Banister 1994
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“The census of 2000 put the population at 1.27 billion, 12 although some demographers regard this number as an underestimate. 13”
From The Effect of China's One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years (2005) · cites this paper as [13]
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“Survey respondents' mothers were far more likely than their fathers to do household chores.12”
From China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters (2002) · cites this paper as [12]
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BackgroundPopulation sex imbalance in China before the One-Child Policy
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“Numerical estimates of missing girls in China are available from Coale and Banister (1994) for the cohorts born from the late 1930s to the late 1980s.”
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“4Some demographers attribute the majority of this decline to LLF (Bhrolcháin and Dyson, 2007; Feeney and Wang, 1993; Lavely and Freedman, 1990) — Notably, many of the demand-side determinants of global fertility decline (wage growth, changes in the opportunity cost of time, etc.) were not changing rapidly in China dur…”
InfluentialMissing Women: Age and Disease: A CorrectionPreprint
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Chang, S., Kan, K., & Zhang, X. (2021) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.3368/jhr.0420-10845r3 · Cited by 7
“That is, our findings predict an elevated likelihood of death in late adulthood for men born after the 1980s in China, India, and other Asian countries where sexratios havebecome skewed (Sen 1992; Coale and Banister 1994; Das Gupta 2005; Bulte, Heerink, and Zhang 2011; Li, Yi, and Zhang 2011).”
ResultUrban-urban split households in China: Gender, migration, and stay-behind women
He-Schaefer, Y., & Fan, C. C. (2024) · Transactions in Planning and Urban Research · doi:10.1177/27541223241239639 · Cited by 9
“…(and terminated in 2015) led to an imbalanced, male-favored sex ratio (Attané and Gu, 2014) – a phenomenon that was created by female infanticide (Coale and Banister, 1994), concealment in reporting births (Shi and Kennedy, 2016), infant abandonment (Johnson et al., 1998), and sex selective…”
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Attané, I. (2010) · Travail genre et sociétés · doi:10.3917/tgs.023.0035 · Cited by 7
A survey of adolescents’ perception of parents with a son preference
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“Coale and Banister (1994) examined data from censuses and fertility surveys in China from 1930 to 1994, and concluded that the imbalance of sex ratios at birth was not a recent issue; it could be even traced back to the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) (Banister, 2004).”
BackgroundBirth planning and population prospects in China and India
Padmadas, S. S., Wang, G., BROWN, J. J., & Li, B. (2005) · Cited by 7
Datt, G., Liu, C., & Smyth, R. (2022) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2022.2055466 · Cited by 7
“More pertinently, there is evidence that ‘female children (beyond the neonatal period) suffered more than male children from the increased mortality in the years of the great famine’ (Coale & Banister, 1994, p. 477).”
BackgroundThe Evolutionary Demography of Sex Ratios in Rural Bangladesh
Shenk, M. K., Towner, M. C., Starkweather, K. E., Atkisson, C. J., & Alam, N. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0280-4_7 · Cited by 7
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“Even if women escaped from famine, they would experience long periods of food shortages (36).”
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“Dearth of females in population cohorts since the late 1930s in China has been ascribed to female losses occurring very early in life [31].”
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Sex Ratio at Birth among Chinese Malaysians, 1963�2003
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Sex-selective abortions over the past four decades in China
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“Nevertheless, because births delivered in hospitals are highly selective in China (Coale and Banister 1994), this study provides only limited evidence of the prevalence of sex-selective abortion.”
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“In the absence of social or behavioural interference, the true SRB is biologically stable, falling between 105 and 107 male births per 100 female births (Hu and Zhang 1984 , Coale and Banister 1994 , Banister 2004 ).”
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CROSS-BORDER MARRIAGE MIGRATION OF VIETNAMESE WOMEN TO CHINA
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“This policy, combined with the historical tradition of family resources directed toward sons, resulted in a large number of missing girls in China (Coale and Banister 1994).”
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“But it is obvious that we don’t have a complete explanation because, after all, infanticide is not restricted to men, to men unrelated to the children, or even to individuals; sometimes, it is a group phenomenon (e.g., the abortion, killing, or neglect of female children in India and China; Sumner 2009; Coale and Bani…”
BackgroundTurning Globalization and the Diffusion of Democracy into Opportunities for Women and Girls
Wejnert, B. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0895-993520150000023001 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Coale, A. J., & Banister, J.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- United States Census Bureau (US)
- Venue
- Demography
- Publisher
- Duke University Press
- Published
- 1994-08-01
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 459-479
- ISSN
- 0070-3370 (ISSN-L)
- 1533-7790
- OpenAlex
- W1969699349
- Cited by
- 447
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 22.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Demography (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Demographic Trends and Gender Preferences
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Reproductive Health and Contraception
- Social Sciences › Demography › Insurance, Mortality, Demography, Risk Management
- Keywords
- sex ratio at birth, sex-selective abortion, infanticide, female mortality, census undercounting, communist era, China
- MeSH terms
- Abortion, Legal, Adolescent, Adult, Cause of Death, Child, Child, Preschool, China, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Demography, Developing Countries, Female, Humans, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Infanticide, Male, Middle Aged, Mortality, Pregnancy, Sex Preselection, Sex Ratio, Cohort Studies, Survival Analysis
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