Population Policy as a Means for Bio-Politics: The Cases of Romania and China

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The body, especially the female body, has been reduced to an economic object by detaching her identity, personal aspirations and desires.

“Hence the body, especially the female body, has been reduced to an economic object by detaching her identity, personal aspirations and desires.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With an accompanying mortality decline, a demographic transition had begun in Western Europe.

“With an accompanying mortality decline, a demographic transition had begun in Western Europe.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Whether pronatalist or antinatalist, all initiatives for population regulation may be seen as means for bio-politics if they establish a form of control over the body.

“Whether policies are pronatalist, and encourage an increase in population growth or they are antinatalist and aimed at limiting it, all initiatives for population regulation may be seen as a means for bio-politics if they are to establish a form of control over the body.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adoption of birth control methods by couples was mostly due to changes in social and economic structure.

“Adoption of birth control methods by couples was mostly due to changes in social and economic structure.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Pronatalist and antinatalist interventions should be methodologically regarded as instruments of bio-politics.

“In either way, those interventions should be methodologically regarded as instruments of bio-politics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Romania adopted the most stringent pronatalist policy between 1966 and 1989.

“Yet it adopted the most stringent pronatalist policy between 1966 and 1989.”

May combine two claims.

In Romania during 1966-1989, a set of problems developed, including an increase in the risk of maternal mortality due to abortion and an increase in the number of unwanted babies.

“In fact, in this era a set of problems developed in Romania, including an increase in the risk of maternal mortality due to abortion and an increase in the number of unwanted babies.”

• cites Newman & Grauerholz, 2002: p.328Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Fertility rates in Europe began to fall in the late 1800s.

“Fertility rates in Europe began to fall in the late 1800s.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Exercising bio-politics and the discovery of the population are related since bio-politics can only be mobilized by gathering population statistics.

“It may be argued that exercising bio-politics and the discovery of the population are related since bio-politics can only be mobilized by gathering those population statistics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

From the eighteenth century onwards, bio-politics has involved any kind of intervention that acts as a means for forming the population according to the wills of those with power.

“From the eighteenth century onwards, bio-politics has involved any kind of intervention which acts as means for forming the population according to the wills of those with power.”

• cites Foucault (1978)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The negative consequences of the one-child policy have been a rapidly aging population, shrinking support for the elderly, an increased risk for maternal and neonatal mortality and a sex ratio imbalance.

“The already discussed negative consequences of the policy have been a rapidly aging population, shrinking support for the elderly, an increased risk for maternal and neonatal mortality and a sex ratio imbalance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

With Decree number 770, the abortion ban was introduced on November 1st, 1966.

“With Decree number 770, the abortion ban, which had a distinctive role in population policy in Romania, was introduced on November 1 st , 1966.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The demands of women to expand the scope of their power and to be emancipated from domestic roles enabled them to be individualized.

“Moreover, as Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2004) noted, the demands of women to expand the scope of their power and to be emancipated from domestic roles enabled them to be individualized.”

• cites Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2004)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

With industrialization and migration from rural to urban areas, the child is no longer considered to be an economic asset and an old-age security.

“With industrialization and migration from rural to urban areas, the child is no longer considered to be an economic asset (Caldwell, 1976;2005) and an old-age security (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1982).”

• cites Caldwell, 1976;2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kağıtçıbaşı, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Coercive and oppressive fertility policies that governments enact may threaten human lives, and this is true for both pronatalist and antinatalist policies.

“Clearly, coercive and oppressive fertility policies that governments enact may threaten human lives.This is true for both pronatalist and antinatalist policies.”

May combine two claims.

Romania aimed at increasing birth rates through direct interventions into female bodies, instead of making an ideational change in fertility behavior through encouraging discourses or providing family supports.

“In other words, Romania aimed at increasing birth rates through direct interventions into female bodies, instead of making an ideational change in fertility behavior through articulating encouraging discourses or providing family supports.”

May combine two claims.

Complementary measures included maternity leave, rewarding children-rich women with medals, tax reductions and payments, and obstructions to divorce.

“In addition, some complementary measures, such as maternity leave, rewarding children-rich women with medals, tax reductions and payments, obstructions to divorce, were also taken.”

May combine two claims.

The decree excluded women who had already borne more than four children, who had conceived through an assault, whose birth-giving had been considered medically unfavorable, or who were determined to be physically, psychologically and emotionally ineligible for children.

“However, the decree did exclude women who had already borne more than four children, who had conceived through an assault, whose birth-giving had been considered to be medically unfavorable, or who were determined to be physically, psychologically and emotionally ineligible for children.”

May combine two claims.

According to research carried out in urban Bucharest in the 1960s, the desired number of children was 1.3 on average, whereas it was 0.7 for women with higher education.

“In fact, according to research carried out in urban Bucharest in the 1960s, the desired number of children was 1,3 on average; whereas it was 0,7 for the women with higher education (Mehlan, 1966, as cited in Besemeres, 1980: p.37).”

• cites Mehlan, 1966, as cited in Besemeres, 1980: p.37Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The educational status of women had risen, and therefore they occupied a higher share of the urban labor force.

“Another factor related to structural differentiation is that the educational status of women had risen, and therefore they occupied a higher share of the urban labor force.”

May combine two claims.

A great many women suffered from self-induced abortions and orphanages overflowed with unwanted and unhealthy babies.

“A great many women suffered from self-induced abortions and orphanages overflowed with unwanted and unhealthy babies (Newman & Grauerholz, 2002: p.328).”

• cites Newman & Grauerholz, 2002: p.328Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This ideational change caused women, and even men, in Europe to have fewer children.

“This ideational change caused women, and even men, in Europe to have fewer children.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

According to Kligman, Ceausescu was instrumentalizing the female body in order to realize his goals.

“According to Kligman (1998: p.7), Ceausescu was instrumentalizing the female body in order to realize his goals.”

• cites Kligman (1998: p.7) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Romanian government sought natural population growth as the prerequisite for industrialization and economic development, and had targeted a population reaching 25 billion by 1990 and 30 billion by 2000.

“Instead of employing the available female labor force, the government sought natural population growth as the prerequisite for industrialization and economic development, and had targeted a population reaching 25 billion by 1990 and 30 billion by 2000 (Trebici, 1976as cited in Berelson, 1979).”

• cites Trebici, 1976as cited in Berelson, 1979Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to Macura, the fact that women gained higher prestige due to their increased share in the labor force caused fertility to decline in the post-war period.

“According to Macura (1974), the fact that women gained higher prestige due to their increased share in labor force caused fertility to decline in the post-war period.”

• cites Macura (1974)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The total fertility rate in China was about 5.8 in 1970 and dropped sharply to 2.8 in 1979.

“The total fertility rate in China was about 5,8 in 1970; it dropped sharply to 2,8 in 1979 (Peng, 2011: p.581)”

• cites Peng, 2011: p.581 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Ceausescu regime between 1966-1989 followed a pronatalist policy in the most restrictive way ever seen in world history and caused tragic effects on the Romanian population.

“The Ceausescu regime between 1966-1989, which had followed a pronatalist policy in the most restrictive way ever seen in world history, caused tragic effects on the Romanian population (Kligman, 1998: p.2).”

• cites Kligman, 1998: p.2 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ceausescu stated that the fetus is the property of the entire society and anyone who avoids having children is a deserter who abandons the laws of national continuity.

“and added that”

• cites Breslau, 1990 as cited in Newman & Grauerholz, 2002: p.328Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

According to Besemeres, states can follow three possible ways to intervene in population policies: economic measures, moral propaganda campaigns, and legal-administrative measures.

“According to Besemeres (1980: p.262), states can follow three possible ways to intervene in population policies.First, policies may be economic measures such as family benefits, or maternity and childcare leaves.The second group of strategies is made up of moral propaganda campaigns through mass media and organizations.And the third group of strategies is composed of legal-administrative measures,”

• cites Besemeres (1980: p.262)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Democratic governments consider reproduction to be a matter of individual choice and prioritize choice over demographic policies that are planned for governmental interests.

“Democratic governments consider reproduction to be a matter of individual choice and prioritize choice over demographic policies that are planned for governmental interests (McIntosh, 1983 as cited in Legge & Alford, 1986).”

• cites McIntosh, 1983 as cited in Legge & Alford, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Overall development, including mass education, has raised the educational level of women, as well as of the whole population.

“Overall development, including mass education, has raised the educational level of women, as well as of the whole population.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Interventions into human fertility through population policies may be regarded as bio-politics from a Foucauldian perspective.

“Interventions into human fertility through population policies may be regarded as bio-politics from a Foucauldian perspective.”

May combine two claims.

The one-child policy was launched in 1979 and remained in force until 2016.

“The one-child policy was launched in 1979 and remained in force until 2016.”

• cites Feng et al., 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The expectation was that a younger and larger population would mean a greater labor force.

“The expectation was that a younger and larger population would mean a greater labor force.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The pronatalist and antinatalist policies of Romania and China politically blurred the borders between the public and private spheres, ideationally eroded human will and human agency, and vitally threatened the female body, the fetus and even the societal entity as a whole.

“The pronatalist and antinatalist policies of Romania and China politically blurred the borders between the public and private spheres, ideationally eroded human will and human agency, and vitally threatened the female body, the fetus and even the societal entity as a whole.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Reproduction is a basic human right.