China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Demographers have found an increasingly skewed Chinese gender ratio, which may result from female infanticide, parents' refusal to register daughters, parents' abandonment or lethal neglect of daughters, sex selection through selective abortion, or some combination of these factors.

“Demographers have found an increasingly skewed Chinese gender ratio, which may result from female infanticide, parents' refusal to register daughters, parents' abandonment or lethal neglect of daughters, sex selection through selective abortion, or some combination of these factors (Arnold and Liu Zhaoxiang 1986;Coale and Banister 1994;Johnson 1996;Li Yongping and Peng Xizhe 2000;Zeng et al. 1993”

• cites Arnold and Liu Zhaoxiang 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Coale and Banister 1994 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Johnson 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Most Dalian parents the author knew told her that it was acceptable to have just one child, even if that child was female, and some even told her they were glad they had daughters instead of sons.

“Most Dalian parents I knew told me that it was acceptable to have just one child, even if that child was female, and some even told me they were glad they had daughters instead of sons.”

May combine two claims.

While medical techniques for detecting the sex of fetuses have been available (although illegal) in Dalian since the 1980s, the mothers of boys the author tutored denied ever having used abortion to avoid having daughters and maintained that only farmers would do this.

“While medical techniques for detecting the sex of fetuses have been available (although illegal) in Dalian since the 1980s, the mothers of boys I tutored denied ever having used abortion to avoid having daughters and maintained that only farmers would do this.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Parents' statements about not using sex-selective abortion or other abuses are truthful enough to support the claim that such abuses did not occur in Dalian.

May combine two claims.

The author suspects that most urban singletons held the belief that they had some chance of upward mobility, since 94 percent (N = 2,192) of survey respondents indicated that they were tutored or took private classes at some point in their lives, and she seldom heard of urban singletons who thought they had no possible chance of upward mobility.

“I suspect that most urban singletons held this belief, since 94 percent (N = 2,192) of survey respondents indicated that they were tutored or took private classes at some point in their lives, and I seldom heard of urban singletons who thought they had no possible chance of upward mobility.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In their youth, daughters could not live with their parents after marriage or provide nursing care or economic support for their elderly parents.

“My students' grandparents told me that, in their youth, daughters could not live with their parents after marriage or provide nursing care or economic support for their elderly parents.”

May combine two claims.

While the author heard rumors about farmers committing infanticide, physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions, or abandoning or lethally neglecting daughters, she never heard of such abuses occurring in Dalian.

“While 1 heard rumors about farmers committing infanticide, physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions, or abandoning or lethally neglecting daughters, I never heard of such abuses occurring in Dalian.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Parents' statements about not using sex-selective abortion or other abuses are truthful enough to support the claim that such abuses did not occur in Dalian.

May combine two claims.

In Dalian, women prefer to marry men of higher status, while men prefer to marry women of the same status.

“In Dalian, women prefer to marry men of higher status, while men prefer to marry women of the same status.”

May combine two claims.

Many of my students' mothers provided monetary support and nursing care for their own elderly parents, most who performed annual worship rituals for their husbands' deceased parents also did so for their own deceased parents, and some inherited money, goods, and housing from their parents.

“Many of my students' mothers provided monetary support and nursing care for their own elderly parents (often getting their husbands to help), most who performed annual worship rituals for their husbands' deceased parents also did so for their own deceased parents, and some inherited money, goods, and housing from their parents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Several all-female private college-preparatory high schools were established in the Dalian area during the 1990s, but no all-male schools.

“Several all-female private college-preparatory high schools (third-rate) were established in the Dalian area during the 1990s, but no all-male schools.”

May combine two claims.

Men and women who lost their jobs tended to reduce the financial support they provided their parents and let wealthier siblings pick up the slack.

“Men and women who lost their jobs tended to reduce the financial support they provided their parents and let wealthier siblings pick up the slack.”

May combine two claims.

Most of the boys and about a quarter of the girls in the survey sample indicated that girls had an easier time getting jobs than boys did.

“Most of the boys and about a quarter of the girls in my survey sample indicated that girls had an easier time getting jobs than boys did.8”

• cites [8] 8. Bourdieu, Pierre 1977 Outlineof a Theory of Practice. R.Nice, trans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001 Masculine Domination. Stanford: Stanford University Press. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This strategy gained popularity after the one-child policy made it a necessity for half of my students' families.

“This strategy gained popularity after the one-child policy made it a necessity for half of my students' families.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to teachers, students, and education officials, only the small minority of schools classified as keypoint college prep schools had more boys than girls.

“According to teachers, students, and education officials, only the small minority of schools classified as keypoint college prep schools (first-rate) had more boys than girls.”

May combine two claims.

The same economic reforms that encourage state enterprises to discriminate against middle-aged women have also created service and light-industry jobs that favor young women.

“The same economic reforms that encourage state enterprises to discriminate against middle-aged women have also created service and light-industry jobs that favor young women.”

May combine two claims.

At the second-rate college prep high school studied, 52 percent of students were female and 48 percent were male.

“At the second-rate college prep high school I studied, 52 percent of students (N = 781) were female and 48 percent were male.”

May combine two claims.

While 12 percent of survey respondents (N = 2,187) were living with at least one paternal grandparent at the time of the survey, 5 percent (N = 2,188) were living with at least one maternal grandparent.

“While 12 percent of my survey respondents (N = 2,187) were living with at least one paternal grandparent at the time of the survey, 5 percent (N = 2,188) were living with at least one maternal grandparent.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.

May combine two claims.

According to survey respondents, 25 percent of their mothers (N = 2,190) and 12 percent of their fathers (N = 2,190) have been laid off or given early retirement.

“According to survey respondents, 25 percent of their mothers (N = 2,190) and 12 percent of their fathers (N = 2,190) have been laid off or given early retirement.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.

May combine two claims.

My students and their parents often talked about people's expectations of how males and females would behave; they were not interested in debating the extent to which such expectations corresponded with the way people actually behaved, but focused on weighing the costs and benefits of disregarding, invoking, transforming, or conforming to particular expectations on particular occasions.

“My students and their parents often talked about people's expectations of how males and females would behave.They were not interested in debating the extent to which such expectations corresponded with the way people actually behaved.Rather, they focused on weighing the costs and benefits of disregarding, invoking, transforming, or conforming to particular expectations on particular occasions.”

May combine two claims.

Elderly parents who were widowed or disabled usually moved into an adult child's household; which child they ended up living with depended less on gender than on interpersonal dynamics and on the amount of time and living space each child's household could spare.

“Elderly parents who were widowed or disabled usually moved into an adult child's household.Which child they ended up living with depended less on gender than on interpersonal dynamics and on the amount of time and living space each child's household could spare.”

May combine two claims.

Average percentile ranks of singleton respondents: girls grades 8-9 57th, boys grades 8-9 42nd, girls college prep 54th, boys college prep 44th.

“Average percentile ranks of singleton respondents by gender and school: girls grades 8-9 (N = 361), 57th percentile; boys grades 8-9 (N = 325), 42nd percentile; girls in college prep high school, grades 10-12 (N = 262), 54th percentile; boys in college prep high school, grades 10-12 (N = 201), 44th percentile.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Dalian men who cannot find local brides can acquire brides from the countryside, where women are eager to gain urban residency through marriage.

“Dalian men who cannot find local brides can acquire brides from the countryside, where women are eager to gain urban residency through marriage.”

May combine two claims.

Percentages of respondents who want to do various amounts of housework: 25% of girls and 17% of boys want to do more housework than their spouse; 63% of girls and 48% of boys want to do half the housework; 12% of girls and 35% of boys want to do less housework than their spouse.

“Percentages of respondents (girls [N -1,159], boys [N = 839]) who want to do various amounts of housework: 25 percent of girls and 17 percent of boys want to do more housework than their spouse; 63 percent of girls and 48 percent of boys want to do half the housework; 12 percent of girls and 35 percent of boys want to do less housework than their spouse.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

China's social structure is still characterized by gender inequality, particularly at the upper levels of the academic and socioeconomic hierarchies.

“China's social structure is still characterized by gender inequality, particularly at the upper levels of the academic and socioeconomic hierarchies.”

May combine two claims.

Percent of relatives who were ever cadres, managers, or whitecollar workers: paternal grandmother 14%, maternal grandmother 15%, paternal grandfather 42%, maternal grandfather 45%, mother 38%, father 48%.

“Percent of relatives who were ever cadres, managers, or whitecollar workers, according to survey respondents: paternal grandmother (N = 1,871) 14 percent, maternal grandmother (N = 1,875) 15 percent, paternal grandfather (N = 1,863) 42 percent, maternal grandfather (N = 1,871) 45 percent, mother (N = 2,009) 38 percent, father (N= 1,984) 48 percent.”

May combine two claims.

Percent of relatives who never did paid work: paternal grandmother 36%, maternal grandmother 34%, paternal grandfather 0%, maternal grandfather 0%, mother 0%, father 0%.

“Percent of relatives who never did paid work, according to survey respondents: paternal grandmother (N = 1,716) 36 percent, maternal grandmother (N = 1,493) 34 percent, paternal grandfather (N = 1,651) 0 percent, maternal grandfather (N = 1,748) 0 percent, mother (N = 1,995) 0 percent, father (N= 1,964) 0 percent.”

May combine two claims.

Percentages of mothers and fathers who did various kinds of household chores: 94% of mothers and 41% of fathers cleaned; 94% of mothers and 42% of fathers did laundry; 94% of mothers and 54% of fathers shopped for groceries; 88% of mothers and 59% of fathers cooked.

“Percentages of mothers and fathers who did various kinds of household chores, according to survey respondents: 94 percent of mothers (N = 2,198) and 41 percent of fathers (N = 2,199) cleaned; 94 percent of mothers (N = 2,195) and 42 percent of fathers (N = 2,194) did laundry; 94 percent of mothers (N = 2,196) and 54 percent of fathers (N = 2,196) shopped for groceries; and 88 percent of mothers (N”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

38% of female respondents and 29% of male respondents indicated that they had at least one parent who had not lived in the countryside, while 62% of female and 71% of male indicated both parents had lived in the countryside.

“On my survey, 38 percent of female respondents (N = 1,254) and 29 percent of male respondents (N = 852) indicated that they had at least one parent who had not lived in the countryside, while 62 percent of female respondents and 71 percent of male respondents indicated that both parents had lived in the countryside.”

May combine two claims.

Parents of singletons only complain about their children's gender when they believe their children are conforming to disadvantageous gender norms, not when their children are conforming to advantageous ones.

“Parents of singletons only complain about their children's gender when they believe their children are conforming to disadvantageous gender norms, not when their children are conforming to advantageous ones.”

May combine two claims.

In my students' parents' generation, men are expected to earn more, have better jobs, and do less housework than their wives, who are expected to take primary responsibility for domestic work, usually at the expense of their careers.

“In my students' parents' generation, men are expected to earn more, have better jobs, and do less housework than their wives, who are expected to take primary responsibility for domestic work, usually at the expense of their careers.”

May combine two claims.

Low fertility enabled mothers to get paid work and, thus, gain the ability to demonstrate their filiality by providing their own parents with financial support.

“Low fertility enabled mothers to get paid work and, thus, gain the ability to demonstrate their filiality by providing their own parents with financial support.”

May combine two claims.

In cities like Dalian, daughters would have been less able to take advantage of available opportunities if they had to compete with brothers for family resources, and if their mothers had not demonstrated that women can support their parents in old age.

“In cities like Dalian, however, it is dear that daughters would have been less able to take advantage of available opportunities if they had to compete with brothers for family resources, and if their mothers had not demonstrated that women can support their parents in old age.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

All of these factors are likely to be both causes and effects of low fertility.

“All of these factors are likely to be both causes and effects of low fertility.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In the system of patrilineal kinship that has long characterized most of Chinese society, parents had little incentive to invest in their daughters.

“In the system of patrilineal kinship that has long characterized most of Chinese society, parents had little incentive to invest in their daughters.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

A society's fertility rate usually correlates with the degree to which it has adopted a modern economy in which child mortality is low, most people live in urban environments, most mothers and fathers work at jobs incompatible with childrearing, and extensive education is widespread for both genders and seen as the road to socioeconomic success.

“A society's fertility rate usually correlates with the degree to which it has adopted a modern economy in which child mortality is low, most people live in urban environments in which children consume a lot more than they produce, most mothers as well as fathers work at jobs incompatible with childrearing, and extensive education is widespread for both genders and seen as the road to socioeconomic”

May combine two claims.

Because mothers have already proven that daughters can provide their parents with old age support, and because singletons have no brothers for their parents to favor, daughters have more power than ever before to defy disadvantageous gender norms while using equivocal ones to their own advantage.

“Because their mothers have already proven that daughters can provide their parents with old age support, and because singletons have no brothers for their parents to favor, daughters have more power than ever before to defy disadvantageous gender norms while using equivocal ones to their own advantage.”

May combine two claims.

Girls born after China's one-child policy began in 1979 have more power to challenge detrimental gender norms and use helpful ones than ever before, thanks to the decline of patriliny and the absence of brothers for their parents to favor.

“Girls born after China's one-child policy began in 1979, however, have more power to challenge detrimental gender norms and use helpful ones than ever before, thanks to the decline of patriliny and the absence of brothers for their parents to favor.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.

May combine two claims.

Low fertility has been a key factor in the empowerment of urban Chinese daughters, but it is not the only necessary and sufficient factor.

“Although I argue that low fertility has been a key factor in the empowerment of urban Chinese daughters, I do not claim that it is the only necessary and sufficient factor.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The effects of China's one-child policy on mothers are equivocal: it has freed mothers from heavy childbearing and child-rearing burdens, but deprived them of freedom to choose family size and subjected them to intrusive state surveillance and enforcement.

“The effects of China's one-child policy on mothers are equivocal.On one hand, it has freed mothers from heavy childbearing and child-rearing burdens; on the other hand, it has deprived mothers of the freedom to choose their family size and subjected them to intrusive state surveillance and enforcement tactics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Low resistance to the one-child policy in cities like Dalian can be attributed to the rapid pace with which people in such cities have internalized the same cultural model of modernization that has caused fertility decline in many societies worldwide.

“Low resistance to the one-child policy in cities like Dalian can be attributed to the rapid pace with which people in such cities have internalized the same cultural model of modernization that has caused fertility decline in many societies worldwide.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Rosaldo's argument is useful for understanding gender systems in societies like China, in which gender inequality has long been based on distinctions between a superior public sphere dominated by men and a subordinate domestic sphere associated with women.

“Still, Rosaldo's argument is useful for understanding gender systems in societies like China, in which gender inequality has long been based on distinctions between a superior public sphere dominated by men and a subordinate domestic sphere associated with women.”

May combine two claims.

Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce.

“Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).”

• cites Greenhalgh 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Greenhalgh 1994aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Greenhalgh et al. 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Almost all Dalian teenagers attended primary and junior high school and most went on to secondary education as well.

“Almost all Dalian teenagers attended primary and junior high school and most went on to secondary education as well (Dalian Shi Jiaoyu Zhi Bian Zuan Bangongshi [Dalian City Education Records Compilation Office] 1999:219-221, 394-426).”

• cites Dalian Shi Jiaoyu Zhi Bian Zuan Bangongshi 1999:219-221, 394-426Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.

“Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.”

May combine two claims.

The fertility transition has enabled urban Chinese daughters to receive heavy parental investment and remain filial all their lives-an ideal long valued by Chinese people of both genders but usually only attainable by men.

“The fertility transition has also enabled urban Chinese daughters to receive heavy parental investment and remain filial all their lives-an ideal that has long been valued by Chinese people of both genders but was usually only attainable by men.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.

May combine two claims.

The findings are not representative of the experiences of the highest-ranked university graduates who dominate intellectual discourse, or of the rural citizens who constituted 64 percent of the Chinese population in 2000.

“My findings are not representative of the experiences of the highest-ranked university graduates who dominate intellectual discourse, or of the rural citizens who constituted 64 percent (China Population Information and Research Center 2001) of the Chinese population in 2000.”

• cites China Population Information and Research Center 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman.

“In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).”

• cites Coale and Chen 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Whyte and Gu 1987:473 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Paid work enabled women to provide their own parents with financial support in old age and, thus, prove that daughters could be as filial as sons.

“Paid work enabled women to provide their own parents with financial support in old age and, thus, prove that daughters could be as filial as sons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The single shift of housework that a housewife did to take care of numerous children in the 1950s and 1960s seems at least as exhausting and time consuming as the combined first and second shifts of an employed mother who only had to take care of one child in the 1980s and 1990s.

“Yet the single shift of housework that a housewife did to take care of numerous children in the 1950s and 1960s seems at least as exhausting and time consuming as the combined first and second shifts of an employed mother who only had to take care of one child in the 1980s and 1990s.”

May combine two claims.

Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside, China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion.

“Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).”

• cites Greenhalgh 1994aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Chu 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target.

“Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).”

• cites Liu Zheng 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Peng Xizhe 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The author cannot claim to have known families from all areas of China's socioeconomic pyramid.

“Still, I cannot claim to have known families from all areas of China's socioeconomic pyramid.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As early as the 1920s, leading Chinese feminists of both genders have advocated paid work as a key to women's emancipation.

“As early as the 1920s, leading Chinese feminists of both genders have advocated paid work as a key to women's emancipation (Lan and Fong 1999).”

• cites Lan and Fong 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Because most of my students' grandmothers lacked the financial resources to support their own parents, they could not contest the cultural expectation that daughters would be less filial than sons.

“Because most of my students' grandmothers lacked the financial resources to support their own parents, they could not contest the cultural expectation that daughters would be less filial than sons.”

May combine two claims.

As scholars working in other Chinese cities have pointed out, the one-child policy seldom results in extreme acts of enforcement or resistance in urban areas, in which desire for high fertility is far less intense than in rural areas.

“As scholars working in other Chinese cities have pointed out (Gates 1993;Milwertz 1997), the one-child policy seldom results in extreme acts of enforcement or resistance in urban areas, in which desire for high fertility is far less intense than in rural areas.”

• cites Gates 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Milwertz 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions.

“American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).”

• cites Aird 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mosher 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Scholarly studies of the one-child policy have focused on the suffering of women who long for additional children; are blamed by husbands and parents-in-law for giving birth to singleton daughters instead of sons; and face surveillance, gynecological exams, mandatory contraception, fines, and the loss of benefits or jobs.

“Scholarly studies of the one-child policy have focused on the suffering of women who long for additional children; are blamed by husbands and parents-in-law for giving birth to singleton daughters instead of sons; and face surveillance, gynecological exams, mandatory contraception, fines, and the loss of benefits or jobs (Anagnost 1988(Anagnost , 1995;;Greenhalgh and Li 1995;Kaufman 1993;Wolf 1985”

• cites Anagnost 1988Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Anagnost 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Greenhalgh and Li 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Because of this assumption, parents avoided investing family resources in daughters.

“Because of this assumption, parents avoided investing family resources in daughters.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Earlier studies attribute much of the male dominance in Chinese societies to parents' preferential treatment of sons over daughters.

“Earlier studies attribute much of the male dominance in Chinese societies to parents' preferential treatment of sons over daughters (Greenhalgh 1985a(Greenhalgh , 1994b;;Salaff 1995;Wolf 1968Wolf , 1972)).”

• cites Greenhalgh 1985aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Greenhalgh 1994bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Salaff 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Schooling is likely to cause women to learn childrearing practices that reduce infant mortality and, thus, reduce the need to have large numbers of children.

“Schooling is also likely to cause women to learn childrearing practices that reduce infant mortality and, thus, reduce the need to have large numbers of children, as Robert A. Levine and his coauthors found in a 1983 study of Mexican mothers' education and childcare practices (LeVine et al. 1991).”

• cites LeVine et al. 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The schools where the author conducted the survey enrolled students from a wide variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, although the most disadvantaged teenagers and the most elite teenagers were underrepresented.

“The schools where I conducted my survey enrolled students from a wide variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, although the most disadvantaged teenagers (such as those who were disabled or lacked urban citizenship) and the most elite teenagers (who were more likely to attend private schools, keypoint high schools, or study abroad programs) were underrepresented.”

May combine two claims.

Both generations of women worked all day, every day; the main difference is that employed mothers had part of their work valorized with monthly wages, which constantly reminded them as well as their husbands, parents, and parents-in-law of their power and indispensability.

“Both generations of women worked all day, every day.The main difference is that employed mothers had part of their work valorized with monthly wages, which constantly reminded them as well as their husbands, parents, and parents-in-law of their power and indispensability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The fertility transition is not always beneficial to the first generation of women to experience it, since they tend to have been socialized to desire large numbers of children and may suffer when they cannot realize this desire.

“This is not always beneficial to the first generation of women to experience the fertility transition, since they tend to have been socialized to desire large numbers of children and may suffer when they cannot realize this desire.”

May combine two claims.

Stereotypically masculine traits are seen as ideal for most jobs in the rapidly shrinking heavy-industry sector and in high-status professions open only to a tiny elite.

“Stereotypically masculine traits are seen as ideal for most jobs in the rapidly shrinking heavy-industry sector and in highstatus professions open only to a tiny elite.”

May combine two claims.

Women can gain upward mobility through hypergamous marriage, while men are often forced to choose between permanent bachelorhood and marriage to someone of lower status.

“Thus, women can gain upward mobility through hypergamous marriage, while men are often forced to choose between permanent bachelorhood and marriage to someone of lower status.”

May combine two claims.

This means that elite women are less likely to get elite work than their male counterparts, but also that nonelite women are more likely to avoid unemployment than their male counterparts.

“This means that elite women are less likely to get elite work than their male counterparts, but also that nonelite women are more likely to avoid unemployment than their male counterparts.”

May combine two claims.

Brotherless daughters, however, are encouraged to make full use of their academic talents because they are their parents' only objects of investment, and only hope for old-age support.

“Brotherless daughters, however, are encouraged to make full use of their academic talents because they are their parents' only objects of investment, and only hope for old-age support.”

May combine two claims.

Men have neither the obstacle of the glass ceiling nor the protection of the glass floor.

“Men have neither the obstacle of the glass ceiling nor the protection of the glass floor.”

May combine two claims.

This advantage, however, was balanced out by elite schools' emphasis on math and science (which boys favored) over the social sciences and humanities (which girls favored).

“This advantage, however, was balanced out by elite schools' emphasis on math and science (which boys favored) over the social sciences and humanities (which girls favored).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

They meet this challenge with a strategic combination of conformity and resistance.

“They meet this challenge with a strategic combination of conformity and resistance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Parents whose love, hope, and need for old-age support are all pinned on just one child tend to do whatever is necessary to make that child happy and successful, regardless of the child's gender.

“Parents whose love, hope, and need for old-age support are all pinned on just one child tend to do whatever is necessary to make that child happy and successful, regardless of the child's gender.”

May combine two claims.

The removal of parental discrimination has enabled singleton daughters to make the best use of their glass floor, and in some cases push the limits of their glass ceiling.

“The removal of this disadvantage has enabled singleton daughters to make the best use of their glass floor, and in some cases push the limits of their glass ceiling.”

May combine two claims.

Still, my students' mothers had at least proven daughters were capable of providing financial support for their parents; this reassured my students' parents that their daughters could have the same capability, especially if they were given the resources to take full advantage of socioeconomic opportunities.

“Still, my students' mothers had at least proven daughters were capable of providing financial support for their parents.This reassured my students' parents that their daughters could have the same capability, especially if they were given the resources to take full advantage of socioeconomic opportunities.”

May combine two claims.

Women face a glass ceiling produced by their extra burden of domestic responsibility, by gender norms that favor men in elite professions, and by inequalities between elite husbands and their less elite, hypergamous wives.

“Women face a glass ceiling produced by their extra burden of domestic responsibility, by gender norms that favor men in elite professions, and by inequalities between elite husbands and their less elite, hypergamous wives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

While a woman has the option of relying on her husband's income, it is not as desirable as having an income of her own.

“While a woman has the option of relying on her husband's income, it is not as desirable as having an income of her own.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

High school entrance exams tested students on more science and math subjects than humanities and social science subjects, and four-year colleges accepted more science and math majors than humanities and social science majors.

“High school entrance exams tested students on more science and math subjects than humanities and social science subjects, and four-year colleges accepted more science and math majors than humanities and social science majors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Although they were not ethnic minorities, economically disadvantaged teenagers in Dalian experienced a similar phenomenon.

“Although they were not ethnic minorities, economically disadvantaged teenagers in Dalian experienced a similar phenomenon.”

May combine two claims.

Rather, they work in favor of younger women and academically unsuccessful women from lower-class families even as they work against older women, elite women, and poor, academically unsuccessful men.

“Rather, they work in favor of younger women and academically unsuccessful women from lower-class families even as they work against older women, elite women, and poor, academically unsuccessful men.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent studies have argued that post-Mao economic reforms have intensified discrimination against women.

“Focusing on biases against older women and elite women, recent studies have argued that post-Mao economic reforms have intensified discrimination against women (Croll 1995;Honig and Hershatter 1988;Hooper 1998;Kerr et al. 1996;Summerfield 1994).”

• cites Croll 1995Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Honig and Hershatter 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hooper 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Singletons of either gender face no competition for parental investment or inheritance.

“Singletons of either gender face no competition for parental investment or inheritance.”

May combine two claims.

Daughters are therefore counseled both to conform to gender norms that can give them an advantage in the general job market and to disregard those that might exclude them from elite professional work.

“Daughters are therefore counseled both to conform to gender norms that can give them an advantage in the general job market and to disregard those that might exclude them from elite professional work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the educational systems of Britain, Canada, the United States, Belgium, Morocco, and Algeria, girls from stigmatized minority backgrounds have tended to outperform their male counterparts, who are more likely to rebel against school discipline.

“In the educational systems of Britain, Canada, the United States, Belgium, Morocco, and Algeria, girls from stigmatized minority backgrounds have tended to outperform their male counterparts, who are more likely to rebel against school discipline (which is identified with their ethnic oppressors) (Gibson 1997).”

• cites Gibson 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The greater studiousness of girls was of limited use in previous generations because parents were reluctant to spend money on daughters' education and sometimes even made daughters drop out of school to do work that would fund their brothers' education.

“The greater studiousness of girls was of limited use in previous generations because parents were reluctant to spend money on daughters' education and sometimes even made daughters drop out of school to do work that would fund their brothers' education (Greenhalgh 1985b(Greenhalgh , 1994b;;Lan and Fong 1999;Wolf 1968Wolf , 1972)).”

• cites Greenhalgh 1985bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Greenhalgh 1994bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lan and Fong 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Although powerful, gender norms are recognized, talked about, and open to challenge.

“Although powerful, these norms are recognized, talked about, and open to challenge.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Because they have the full support of their parents, singleton daughters have unprecedented freedom to engage in this kind of play.

“Because they have the full support of their parents, singleton daughters have unprecedented freedom to engage in this kind of play.”

May combine two claims.

Therefore, they do not try to eradicate all gender norms; rather, they only try to do away with ones most likely to hurt their own interests, such as those that portray daughters as less filial and less worthy of parental investment than sons.

“Therefore, they do not try to eradicate all gender norms.Rather, they only try to do away with ones most likely to hurt their own interests, such as those that portray daughters as less filial and less worthy of parental investment than sons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Women also enjoy the protection of a glass floor created by the hypergamous marriage system, by gender norms that favor nonelite women in the educational system, and by the rapidly expanding market for feminine jobs in the service and light industry sectors.

“Women also enjoy the protection of a glass floor created by the hypergamous marriage system, by gender norms that favor nonelite women in the educational system, and by the rapidly expanding market for feminine jobs in the service and light industry sectors.”

May combine two claims.

While elite men are more likely than their female counterparts to rise to the top of their society, nonelite men are also more likely than their female counterparts to fall to the bottom.

“While elite men are more likely than their female counterparts to rise to the top of their society, nonelite men are also more likely than their female counterparts to fall to the bottom.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Daughters and their parents face the extra challenge of winning happiness and success in a society structured by gender norms that have long disadvantaged women.

“Daughters and their parents face the extra challenge of winning happiness and success in a society structured by gender norms that have long disadvantaged women.”

May combine two claims.

While more elite women might have the wherewithal to seek the total liberation that Butler proposed, the author's mostly nonelite students and their parents find that they must choose their battles.

“While more elite women might have the wherewithal to seek the total liberation that Butler proposed, my mostly nonelite students and their parents find that they must choose their battles.”

May combine two claims.

Girls who conform to gender norms are more studious and obedient than their male counterparts and, thus, more successful in the educational system at all levels besides the very highest.

“Girls who conform to gender norms are more studious and obedient than their male counterparts and, thus, more successful in the educational system at all levels besides the very highest.”

May combine two claims.

These factors constituted a significant bias against girls at the highest levels of academic achievement, but not at the middle and lower levels where the majority of students found themselves.

“These factors constituted a significant bias against girls at the highest levels of academic achievement, but not at the middle and lower levels where the majority of students found themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Such a transition would have occurred more slowly, and produced fewer brotherless daughters, than the transition mandated by the one-child policy.

“Such a transition would have occurred more slowly, and produced fewer brotherless daughters, than the transition mandated by the one-child policy.”

May combine two claims.

Daughters empowered by the support of parents with no sons to favor are able to defy detrimental norms while strategically using ones that give them advantages in the educational system and the job and marriage markets.

“Daughters empowered by the support of parents with no sons to favor are able to defy detrimental norms while strategically using ones that give them advantages in the educational system and the job and marriage markets.”

May combine two claims.

Urban singleton daughters enjoy unprecedented support for their effort to challenge norms that work against them while utilizing those that work in their favor.

“In contrast, urban singleton daughters enjoy unprecedented support for their effort to challenge norms that work against them while utilizing those that work in their favor.”

May combine two claims.

The benefits enjoyed by singleton daughters result from the demographic pattern produced by China's one-child policy, and not necessarily from the compulsory nature of that policy.

“The benefits enjoyed by singleton daughters result from the demographic pattern produced by China's one-child policy, and not necessarily from the compulsory nature of that policy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Global processes of industrialization, modernization, and urbanization have led to low fertility in all developed countries and many developing countries worldwide.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

These processes would probably have caused a fertility transition in cities like Dalian even without a onechild policy.

“These processes would probably have caused a fertility transition in cities like Dalian even without a onechild policy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Global processes of industrialization, modernization, and urbanization have led to low fertility in all developed countries and many developing countries worldwide.