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Five Decades of Missing Females in China
Open accessAbstract
This paper seeks to explain the dearth of females in the population of China in cohorts born from the late 1930s to the present. We demonstrate that in virtually all cohorts. the shortage of females in comparison with males is revealed when the cohort is first enumerated in a census. Subsequently it barely changes, an indication that female losses occur very early in life. Using the high-quality data from the censuses and fertility surveys in China, we show that many of the births of the girls missing in the censuses were not reported in the surveys because they died very young. The incidence of excess early female mortality (probably infanticide) declined precipitously in the Communist period, but not to zero. The recent escalation in the proportion of young females missing in China has been caused largely by rapidly escalating sex-selective abortion.
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“Using high-quality demographic data collected or made available up to the 1990s,Coale & Banister (1994) documented the drop in the estimated excess female to male infant deaths ratio, from over 15% for births in the 1930s, 10% in the 1940s, and only about 2% for those born in the 1960s and 1970s, before edging up in the early 1980s.”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Coale & Banister 1994
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“Demographers have found an increasingly skewed Chinese gender ratio, which may result from female infanticide, parents' refusal to register daughters, parents' abandonment or lethal neglect of daughters, sex selection through selective abortion, or some combination of these factors (Arnold and Liu Zhaoxiang 1986;Coale and Banister 1994;Johnson 1996;Li Yongping and Peng Xizhe 2000;Zeng et al. 1993”
From China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters (2002) · cites this paper as Coale and Banister 1994
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“According to China's 1990 census, there were 1.083 males for every female born between 1980 and 1984 (Coale and Banister 1994:461), the period when most of my students were born.”
From China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters (2002) · cites this paper as Coale and Banister 1994:461
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“Soon after the one-child policy was put into force nationwide, sex ratio at birth, which had started to return to normal during the first decades of the socialist rule (Coale & Banister 1994), resumed an upward tick.”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Coale & Banister 1994
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“The census of 2000 put the population at 1.27 billion, 12 although some demographers regard this number as an underestimate. 13”
From The Effect of China's One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years (2005) · cites this paper as [13]
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“Survey respondents' mothers were far more likely than their fathers to do household chores.12”
From China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters (2002) · cites this paper as [12]
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“Hu & Tian: Ancestor worship and family formation in contemporary China 10 http://www.demographic-research.org female infanticide (Coale and Banister 1994; DeLugan 2013).8 In addition, we suspect that son preference, as implied in the old Chinese saying “The more sons, the more blessings,” might…”
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Progression to Second Birth in China: A Study of Four Rural Counties
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Rural–Urban Migration and Gender Disparities in Child Healthcare in China and India
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BackgroundDaughter preference in Japan: A reflection of gender role attitudes?
Fuse, K. (2013) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2013.28.36 · Cited by 42
“Goodkind (1996) notes that sex ratios at birth rose sharply in the early 1980s as sex-testing technologies became widespread in Korea, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among the Chinese populations of Singapore and Malaysia.”
Smith, H. L. (1994) · Demography · doi:10.2307/2061753 · Cited by 40
“Coale and Banister (1994) argue that elevated sex ratios in retrospective surveys are in part a result of collecting birth histories in a culture in which the definition of a birth may exclude issue dying shortly after delivery.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialJin, Y., & Rider, M. (2020) · Journal of Public Budgeting Accounting & Financial Management · doi:10.1108/jpbafm-11-2019-0174 · Cited by 40
Eye disease associated with handling pet tarantulas: three case reports
Blaikie, A. J., Ellis, J. D., Sanders, R., & MacEwen, C. J. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7093.1524 · Cited by 40
Metadata
- Authors
- Coale, A. J., & Banister, J.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- United States Census Bureau (US)
- Venue
- Demography
- Publisher
- Duke University Press
- Published
- 1994-08-01
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 459-479
- ISSN
- 0070-3370 (ISSN-L)
- 1533-7790
- OpenAlex
- W1969699349
- Cited by
- 447
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 22.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Demography (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Demographic Trends and Gender Preferences
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Reproductive Health and Contraception
- Social Sciences › Demography › Insurance, Mortality, Demography, Risk Management
- Keywords
- sex ratio at birth, sex-selective abortion, infanticide, female mortality, census undercounting, communist era, China
- MeSH terms
- Abortion, Legal, Adolescent, Adult, Cause of Death, Child, Child, Preschool, China, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Demography, Developing Countries, Female, Humans, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Infanticide, Male, Middle Aged, Mortality, Pregnancy, Sex Preselection, Sex Ratio, Cohort Studies, Survival Analysis
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