Can home use of speech-enabled artificial intelligence mitigate foreign language anxiety: investigation of a concept
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
The harmful effects of speech-related anxiety among learners and users of foreign language is well documented. Aiming to investigate the potential of reducing anxiety through ad libitum interaction with Artificial Intelligence chatbots, a controlled pilot study was conducted on East Asian staff of a large financial institution over a 4-week period, the sample of 40 divided between a test group using AI and the non-exposed subjects. Variety of measures were employed to gain as comprehensive an insight as warranted given the study limitations of a small sample, brief study period and relatively unsophisticated but freely available AI chatbot. The measures ranged from surveys of anxiety, attitudes toward daily chatbot usage, oral interviews and IELTS testing of English speaking ability. The results were cautiously encouraging: nearly universal endorsement of AI as a non-threatening interlocutor positively impacting subjects' confidence and to the extent limited by time constraint, enhancing individual components of the IELTS paradigm. Moreover, significant linear relationship between individual anxiety survey items and overall IELTS scores at baseline was observed, lending a measure of validity to the construct developed for the occasion. In summary, it is felt that subject to further development and refinement, conversationally enhanced AI chatbots hold a significant promise toward reducing speech-related anxieties and learning inhibitions of English as a foreign language and thus merit further investigation toward this objective.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The integration of chatbots to eliminate learning anxiety has shown significant promise in most studies.
“The integration of chatbots to eliminate learning anxiety has shown significant promise in most studies ([28,46,47]).”
Chatbots acted as learning partners by chatting and interacting with learners through voice and text.
“Chatbots also acted as learning partners by chatting and interacting with learners through voice ([26,28,52,47,53]) and text ([27,41]).”
[54] and Bao (2019) found that teachers and students responded positively toward the integration of AI-based chatbots into EFL classes.
“[54] and Bao (2019) investigated the integration of AI-based chatbots into EFL classes and found that teachers' and students’ responded positively toward the integration, and students experienced reduction in learning anxiety; however, these studies did not specify the main task of the AI in the EFL class.”
From Investigating the integration of artificial intelligence in English as foreign language classes for enhancing learners’ affective factors: A systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as Bao (2019)
[54] and Bao (2019) found that students experienced reduction in learning anxiety.
“[54] and Bao (2019) investigated the integration of AI-based chatbots into EFL classes and found that teachers' and students’ responded positively toward the integration, and students experienced reduction in learning anxiety; however, these studies did not specify the main task of the AI in the EFL class.”
From Investigating the integration of artificial intelligence in English as foreign language classes for enhancing learners’ affective factors: A systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as Bao (2019)
Most experiments were conducted over a brief period, ranging from two 50-min experiments to a three-month quasi-experimental study.
“Most experiments were conducted over a brief period, ranging from two 50-min experiments [50] to a three-month quasi-experimental study ([41,45,47,51]).”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context
Hofstede, G. (2011) · Online Readings in Psychology and Culture · doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1014 · Cited by 7,250 · see citing works
Preliminary Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale
Horwitz, E. (1986) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3586302 · Cited by 892 · see citing works
Motivation, Interest, and Positive Affect in Traditional and Nontraditional Undergraduate Students
Bye, D., Pushkar, D., & Conway, M. A. (2007) · Adult Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0741713606294235 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Chang, C., Lee, J. H., Chao, P.-Y., Wang, C. Y., & Chen, G. D. (2010) · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Andragogy after twenty‐five years
Pratt, D. D. (1993) · New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education · doi:10.1002/ace.36719935704 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
The Impact of Social Robotics on L2 Learners’ Anxiety and Attitude in English Vocabulary Acquisition
Alemi, M., Meghdari, A., & Ghazisaedy, M. (2015) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-015-0286-y · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Exploring AI language assistants with primary EFL students
Underwood, J. (2017) · doi:10.14705/rpnet.2017.eurocall2017.733 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 8 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern language journal, 70(2), 125-132.
- MacIntyre, P. (1992). Anxiety, language learning and stages of processing (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of West Ontario, London, ON. Retrieved from https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/digitizedtheses/2155
- Occhipinti, A. (2009). Foreign language anxiety in in-class speaking activities (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
- Shawar, B. A., & Atwell, E. (2007, January). Chatbots: are they really useful?. In Ldv forum (Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 29-49).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education
Kasneci, E., Sessler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F., Gasser, U., Groh, G., Günnemann, S., Hüllermeier, E., et al. (2023) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274 · Cited by 7,326 · see citing works
Huang, W., Hew, K. F., & Fryer, L. K. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12610 · Cited by 830 · see citing works
Are We There Yet? - A Systematic Literature Review on Chatbots in Education
Wollny, S., Schneider, J., Di Mitri, D., Weidlich, J., Rittberger, M., & Drachsler, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2021.654924 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
“An example of this can be seen in the work of (Bao, 2019), which tries to mitigate foreign language anxiety by chatbot interactions in foreign languages.”
BackgroundJi, H., Han, I., & Ko, Y. (2023) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2022.2142873 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Shazly, R. F. E. (2021) · Expert Systems · doi:10.1111/exsy.12667 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Du, J., & Daniel, B. K. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100230 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Qiao, H., & Zhao, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255594 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Tian, W., Ge, J., Zhao, Y., & Zheng, X. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1268549 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Yang, H., & Kyun, S. (2022) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.7492 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Sharadgah, T. A., & Sa'di, R. A. (2022) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/4999 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Zhang, C., Liu, X., Ziska, K., Jeon, S., Yu, C.-L., & Xu, Y. (2024) · Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642647 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
AlTwijri, L., & Alghizzi, T. M. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31053 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Belda-Medina, J. R., & Kokošková, V. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-023-00432-3 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
The use of chatbots in university EFL settings: Research trends and pedagogical implications
Klímová, B., & Ibna Seraj, P. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1131506 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Wang, F., Cheung, A. C. K., Neitzel, A. J., & Chai, C. S. (2025) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543241255621 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
A systematic review of current trends in artificial intelligence in foreign language learning
Alhusaiyan, E. A. (2024) · Saudi Journal of Language Studies · doi:10.1108/sjls-07-2024-0039 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Wu, T., Hapsari, I. P., & Huang, Y. (2025) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2025.2478271 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Zheng, S. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100271 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Debate and Dilemmas Regarding Generative AI in Mental Health Care: Scoping Review
Xian, X., Chang, A., Xiang, Y., & Liu, M. T. (2024) · Interactive Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.2196/53672 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Xiao, Y. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04672-8 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
A year of generative AI in English language teaching and learning - A case study
Hınız, G. (2024) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2024.2404132 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Exploring the Utility of ChatGPT for Self-directed Online Language Learning
Li, Z., Wang, C., & Bonk, C. J. (2024) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v28i3.4497 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Chinese University Students’ Attitudes and Perceptions in Learning English Using ChatGPT
Liu, B. (2023) · International Journal of Education and Humanities · doi:10.58557/(ijeh).v3i2.145 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ai in e-learning: the affordance perspective
Zhang, J., Liu, Z., Lv, H., & Jiang, M. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2287660 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
A Study on the Efficacy of ChatGPT-4 in Enhancing Students’ English Communication Skills
Wang, Y. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241310644 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Intelligent assistants in language learning: an analysis of features and limitations
Kukulska‐Hulme, A., & Lee, H. (2020) · doi:10.14705/rpnet.2020.48.1184 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Wei, W., Zhao, A., & Ma, H. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3554545 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Ye, L., Jiang, J., Liu, Y., Ran, Y., & Chang, D. (2025) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3706599.3719837 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Dolenc, K., & Brumen, M. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100285 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The future of language education: Teachers’ perceptions about the surge of AI writing tools
Zimotti, G., Frances, C., & Whitaker, L. (2024) · Technology in Language Teaching & Learning · doi:10.29140/tltl.v6n1.1136 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Lai, X., Yi, S., & Lu, Y. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13190-0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Integration of Chatbots in Additional Language Education: A Systematic Review
Cislowska, A. I., & Acuña, B. P. (2024) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.13.4.1607 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Künstliche Intelligenz in der Hochschulbildung
Schmohl, T., Watanabe, A., & Schelling, K. (2023) · Hochschulbildung: Lehre und Forschung · doi:10.14361/9783839457696 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Künstliche Intelligenz in der Hochschulbildung
(2023) · transcript Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783839457696 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Qiao, M. S., Gu, M. M., & Lu, C. (2025) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.70034 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
A review of Artificial Intelligence in Foreign Language Learning
Gkountara, D. N., & Prasad, R. (2022) · International Symposium on Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications (WPMC) · doi:10.1109/wpmc55625.2022.10014767 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Ballıdağ, M., & Aydın, S. (2025) · Future in Educational Research · doi:10.1002/fer3.70005 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Examining the Use of ChatGPT in Language Teaching
Çağatay, S. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-9893-4.ch001 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence in Language Learning
Dou, A., Xu, W., Li, X., Zhang, S., & Zhang, J. (2025) · International Journal of Distance Education Technologies · doi:10.4018/ijdet.385045 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Amonova, S., Juraeva, G., & Khidoyatov, M. (2023) · International Conference on Future Networks and Distributed Systems (ICFNDS) · doi:10.1145/3644713.3644751 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Bibliometric and Systematic Analysis of Artificial Intelligence Chatbots’ Use for Language Education
Wu, T., & Yu, Z. (2024) · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · doi:10.53761/6jmnst54 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
K-Qbot: Language Learning Chatbot Based on Reinforcement Learning
Oralbayeva, N., Shakerimov, A., Sarmonov, S., Kantoreyeva, K., Dadebayeva, F., Serkali, N., & Sandygulova, A. (2022) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri53351.2022.9889428 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Yuan, Z., & Lyu, T. (2024) · International Conference on Distance Education and Learning (ICDEL) · doi:10.1145/3675812.3675822 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
HumanRoboLab: Experiments with Chatbots in Management Education at Universities
Pijetlovic, D., & Müller-Christ, G. (2022) · Advanced studies in diginomics and digitalization · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04063-4_1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cennetkusu, N. G. (2026) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2026.102580 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Kamelabad, A. M., Turano, B., Lundin, M., & Skantze, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1703664 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Exploring the Use of ChatGPT as a Tool for Developing Eportfolios in ESL Classrooms
Anh, L. N. N., Vu, N. N., Nguyen, M. T.-X., & Bo, L. K. (2024) · EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50139-5_3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Register alignment of ChatGPT-generated academic texts
Demir, N. Y., & Egbert, J. (2026) · Applied Corpus Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.acorp.2025.100174 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Goes to the Heart: Speaking the User's Native Language
Ashkenazi, S., Skantze, G., Stuart‐Smith, J., & Foster, M. E. (2024) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/3610978.3640633 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Research Trends of Artificial Intelligence in Language Education: A Bibliometric Review
Liu, L., & Fu, L. (2024) · International Symposium on Educational Technology · doi:10.1109/iset61814.2024.00015 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lernbooster oder Kreativitätskiller?
Münch-Manková, Z., Sailer, M., & Pickal, A. J. (2025) · doi:10.57088/978-3-7329-8749-8_14 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Asmar, K., Eljai, M., Jai, Y. E., & Belfakir, L. (2025) · LatIA · doi:10.62486/latia2025317 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lee, H.-K., & Hwang, M. (2024) · The Journal of AsiaTEFL · doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2024.21.2.4.325 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pijetlovic, D. (2023) · transcript Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783839457696-014 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Shin, D., & Lee, J. H. (2025) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2025.2549037 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Multilingual Student Support Robot
Ashkenazi, S., Skantze, G., Stuart‐Smith, J., & Foster, M. E. (2025) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man63969.2025.11217768 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Çakmak, F. (2025) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2025.2587731 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ming-yan, M., Noordin, N. B., & Razali, A. B. (2024) · International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development · doi:10.6007/ijarped/v13-i4/23894 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Exploring the Role of AI-Based Tools in Enhancing Student Learning Outcomes
Lit, A., Suhaili, S. B., Husin, M. H., Kipli, K., Huspi, H. A., & Mahyan, F. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Engineering Education (ICEED) · doi:10.1109/iceed62316.2024.10923804 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pijetlovic, D. (2023) · Hochschulbildung: Lehre und Forschung · doi:10.14361/9783839457696-014
Let’s Code for Languages: Integrating AI Chatbots into Language Learning
Cai, A., Konstantopoulos, D., Davis, R., Zheng, Y., & Liu, D. (2021) · The FLTmag. · doi:10.69732/wglc4005
Anuardi, M. N. A. M., Shamsuddin, W. N. F. W., & bin Sinal, M. S. (2025) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-8931-6_7
TRANSLINGUALISM AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOFT SKILLS
Amangeldiyevna, O. S., Ибраймова, Л. Ә., & Moldabayeva, K. (2025) · Tiltanym · doi:10.55491/2411-6076-2025-3-74-85
Barzanji, C., Rosteck, N., Eberl, S., Rottmann, S., & Loitsch, C. (2026) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3772363.3798558
Tran, M. (2026) · Proceedings of International Academia · doi:10.65956/procia.2026.121
Demir, N. Y. (2026) · Digital Scholarship in the Humanities · doi:10.1093/llc/fqag084
Shen, L., Zh, W., T’ng, S. T., & Ho, K. H. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261462976
Wang, J., & Zhu, L. (2026) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/202623601025
Gani, A. F. A., Hassim, A. R. A., Ahmad, I., Arifin, M. Z., Azmi, S. S., & Saleh, N. S. (2026) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Data Sciences (AiDAS) · doi:10.1109/aidas71914.2026.11712916
- Authors
- Bao, M.
- Affiliations
- Thammasat University (TH)
- Corresponding author
- Bao, Minhui
- Venue
- Arab World English Journal
- Publisher
- AWEJ Publishing
- Published
- 2019-07-15
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 28-40
- ISSN
- 2229-9327 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2963430424
- Cited by
- 70
- References
- 8
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 12.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- Arab World English Journal (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Communication in Education and Healthcare
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › English Language Learning and Teaching
- Keywords
- foreign language anxiety, speaking anxiety, AI chatbots, chatbots, English as a foreign language, learner confidence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
