Cited by 13Names, Identity, and Discrimination ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyDiscrimination and Equality Law

Equal Outcomes, but Different Treatment – Subtle Discrimination in Email Responses From a Correspondence Test in Switzerland

Open access
Zschirnt, Eva·2019·Swiss Journal of Sociology

Abstract

Correspondence tests on discrimination usually report only whether an applicant was invited for a job interview or not. Yet, data from a field experiment in Switzerland demonstrate that candidates with the same outcome are not necessarily treated equally. The paper complements correspondence test results with information on the time elapsed until candidates were contacted, as well as qualitative differences in invitation or rejection emails.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2478/sjs-2019-0007

Cites

5 of 5 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 30

  1. Aigner, Dennis J. and Glen G. Cain. 1977. Statistical Theories of Discrimination in Labor Markets. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30(2): 175-187.
  2. Arrow, Kenneth J. 1973. The Theory of Discrimination. Pp. 15-42 in Discrimination in Labor Markets, edited by Orley Ashonfelter and Albert Rees. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  3. Becker, Gary S. 1957. The Economics of Discrimination (2 nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  4. Bendick Jr., Marc, Rekha Eanni Rodriguez, and Sarumathi Jayaraman. 2010. Employment Discrimination in Upscale Restaurants: Evidence From Matched Pair Testing. The Social Science Journal 47(4): 802-818.
  5. Bertrand, Marianne and Esther Duflo. 2017. Field Experiments on Discrimination. Pp. 309-393 in Handbook of Economic Field Experiments (Vol. 1), edited by Abhijit Vinayak Banerjee and Esther Duflo. Amsterdam/Oxford: Elsevier.
  6. Blank, Rebecca. M., Marilyn Dabady, and Constance F. Citro (eds.). 2004. Measuring Racial Discrimination. Washington, D. C.: National Academies Press.
  7. Cediey, Eric and Fabrice Foroni. 2008. Discrimination in Access to Employment on Grounds of Foreign Origin in France: A National Survey of Discrimination Based on the Testing Methodology of the International Labour Office (Vol. 85E). Geneva: International Labor Organisation (ILO).
  8. Crabtree, Charles. 2018. An Introduction to Conducting Email Audit Studies. Pp. 103-117 in Audit Studies: Behind the Scenes With Theory, Method, and Nuance, edited by S. Michael Gaddis. Cham: Springer.
  9. Daniel, William Wentworth. 1968. Racial Discrimination in England: Based on the PEP Report (Vol. 1084). Middlesex: Penguin. SJS 45 (2), 2019, 143-160
  10. Darity, William A. and Patrick L. Mason. 1998. Evidence on Discrimination in Employment: Codes of Color, Codes of Gender. Journal of Economic Perspectives 12(2): 63-90.
  11. de Prada, Miguel Angel, W. Actis, C. Pereda, and R. Perez Molina. 1995. Labour Market Discrimination Against Migrant Workers in Spain (Vol. 9). Geneva: International Labour Office (ILO).
  12. Drydakis, Nick and Minas Vlassis. 2010. Ethnic Discrimination in the Greek Labour Market: Occupational Access, Insurance Coverage and Wage Offers. The Manchester School 78(3): 201-218.
  13. Fix, Michael and Raymond J. Struyk (eds.). 1993. Clear and Convincing Evidence: Measurement of Discrimination in America. Washington, D. C.: The Urban Institute Press.
  14. Gaddis, S. Michael. 2015. Discrimination in the Credential Society: An Audit Study of Race and College Selectivity in the Labor Market. Social Forces 93(4): 1451-1479.
  15. Ghumman, Sonia and Ann Marie Ryan. 2013. Not Welcome Here: Discrimination Towards Women Who Wear the Muslim Headscarf. Human Relations 66(5): 671-698.
  16. Hanson, Andrew, Zackary Hawley, and Aryn Taylor. 2011. Subtle Discrimination in the Rental Housing Market: Evidence From E-mail Correspondence With Landlords. Journal of Housing Economics 20(4): 276-284.
  17. Heckman, James J. and Peter Siegelman. 1993. The Urban Institute Audit Studies: Their Methods and Find- ings. Pp. 187-258 in Clear and Convincing Evidence: Measurements of Discrimination in America, edited by Michael Fix and Raymond J. Struyk. Washington, D. C.: The Urban Institute Press.
  18. Helbling, Marc. 2011. Why Swiss-Germans Dislike Germans. European Societies 13(1): 5-27.
  19. Krings, Franciska, Claire Johnston, Steve Binggeli, and Christian Maggiori. 2014. Selective Incivility: Immigrant Groups Experience Subtle Workplace Discrimination at Different Rates. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 20(4): 491-498.
  20. Neumark, David. 2018. Experimental Research on Labor Market Discrimination. Journal of Economic Literature 56(3): 799-866.
  21. Pager, Devah and Hana Shepherd. 2008. The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Em- ployment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets. Annual Review of Sociology 34(1): 181-209.
  22. Phelps, Edmund S. 1972. The Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism. The American Economic Review 62(4): 659-661.
  23. Rapp, Carolin. 2015. More Diversity, Less Tolerance? The Effect of Type of Cultural Diversity on the Erosion of Tolerance in Swiss Municipalities. Ethnic and Racial Studies 38(10): 1779-1797.
  24. Reskin, Barbara. F. 2003. Including Mechanisms in Our Models of Ascriptive Inequality: 2002 Presidential Address. American Sociological Review 68(1): 1-21.
  25. Riach, Peter A. and Judith Rich. 2002. Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place. The Economic Journal 112(483): F480-F518.
  26. Rowe, Mary P. 1990. Barriers to Equality: The Power of Subtle Discrimination to Maintain Unequal Opportunity. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 3(2): 153-163.
  27. Van Laer, Koen and Maddy Janssens. 2011. Ethnic Minority Professionals' Experiences with Subtle Discrimination in the Workplace. Human Relations 64(9): 1203-1227.
  28. Weichselbaumer, Doris. 2016. Discrimination Against Migrant Job Applicants in Austria: An Experimental Study. German Economic Review 18(2): 237-265.
  29. Zschirnt, Eva. 2019. Evidence of Hiring Discrimination against the Second Generation: Results from a Correspondence Test in the Swiss Labour Market. Journal of International Migration and Integra- tion (Online first) 1-23.
  30. Zschirnt, Eva and Didier Ruedin. 2016. Ethnic Discrimination in Hiring Decisions: A Meta-Analysis of Correspondence Tests 1990-2015. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42(7): 1115-1134.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Zschirnt, E.
Affiliations
European University Institute (IT)
Corresponding author
Zschirnt, Eva
Venue
Swiss Journal of Sociology
Published
2019-08-17
Volume
45
Issue
2
Pages
143-160
ISSN
  • 0379-3664 (ISSN-L)
  • 2297-8348
OpenAlex
W2969977721
Cited by
13
References
5
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1
FWCI
4.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Swiss Journal of Sociology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Cadmus - EUI Research Repository (European University Institute) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation
  • Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Law › Discrimination and Equality Law
Keywords
subtle discrimination, correspondence test, job applications, time-to-contact, hiring discrimination, field experiments

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review