Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments

Even equal treatment at the callback level may conceal subtler differences in treatment, as shown by Zschirnt (2019).

“Additionally, even equal treatment at the callback level may conceal subtler differences in treatment, as shown by Zschirnt (2019).”

• cites Zschirnt (2019) sourceSupported

Institutional rules regarding race and ethnicity in hiring can have an important influence on levels of discrimination.

“Evidence indicates that institutional rules regarding race and ethnicity in hiring can have an important influence on levels of discrimination.”

• cites Dobbin et al. 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions report that special recruitment programs promote diversity, while job tests and other personnel reforms are followed by declines in diversity among disadvantaged groups. This supports the point that hiring-related rules can affect racial and ethnic outcomes, but the paper measures workforce diversity rather than levels of discrimination directly. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Di Stasio & Larsen (2020) found evidence of interaction between gender and race in determining hiring after taking into account interactions with minority group and share of females in occupations.

“Finally, GEMM results reported by Di Stasio & Larsen (2020) find evidence of interaction between gender and race in determining hiring after taking into account interactions with minority group and share of females in occupations (see also Bursell 2014).”

• cites Di Stasio & Larsen (2020) sourceSupported
• cites Bursell 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There has been no change in discrimination against African Americans in the United States over the past 25 years.

“Quillian et al. (2017) find that there has been no change over the past 25 years in discrimination against African Americans in the United States.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2017) sourcePartly supported

  The Results report no change over the past 25 years in hiring discrimination against African Americans in the United States. The Discussion explicitly limits the findings to discrimination at the point of hire; the cited paper does not establish that discrimination more broadly was unchanged. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The meta-analyses by Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) and Quillian et al. (2019) find no statistically significant or substantively large difference in discrimination over immigrant generation groups.

“Similarly, the meta-analyses by Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) and Quillian et al. (2019) find no statistically significant or substantively large difference in discrimination over immigrant generation groups.”

• cites Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourcePartly supported

  In the Results (page unavailable), Quillian et al. report that being foreign-born did not significantly predict the discrimination ratio; Table 3 (indexed under Notes, page unavailable) gives a small coefficient of −0.06. This supports a limited foreign-born versus native-born comparison, but the paper does not report a comparison across immigrant generation groups more broadly, and it cautions that low variability may explain the nonsignificant result. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Norway appears to have higher discrimination in the GEMM results than in the Quillian et al. meta-analysis.

“The one relatively inconsistent country is Norway, which appears to have higher discrimination in the GEMM results than in the Quillian et al. meta-analysis.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported

The White majority receives between 20% and 80% more callbacks than non-White groups depending on the group and the country.

“Theirmeta-analysis suggests that the White majority receives between 20% and 80% more callbacks than non-White groups depending on the group and the country.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourcePartly supported

  The Results report that white natives received 22–41% more callbacks in Germany, the United States, and Norway, but 75–102% more in France and Sweden. The claim captures the direction and cross-country variation, but its 80% upper bound understates the reported range. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

White immigrants and White minority ethnic groups experience less hiring discrimination than non-White groups in the same country.

“2. White minorities experience less discrimination.Quillian et al. (2019) find evidence of less discrimination against White immigrants and White minority ethnic groups compared with non-White groups in the same country.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported

Country is a stronger predictor than almost any other covariate in Quillian et al.'s models.

“Country is a stronger predictor than almost any other covariate in their models.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported

Discrimination against White immigrants is low in North America, Western Europe, and Australia.

“For White immigrants, discrimination appears to be low in North America, Western Europe, and Australia-this pattern is also apparent in”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion says white immigrants face less hiring discrimination than nonwhite applicants and that their disadvantage relative to white natives is often small and statistically insignificant. The Results list countries in Europe and North America, but not Australia, so the paper does not support extending this finding to Australia. (LLM, conf=0.89)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Results from the GEMM study show lower discrimination against White minorities.

“Results for a subset of these Table 3. Results from the GEMM study also show lower discrimination against White minorities (Di Stasio & Larsen 2020).”

• cites Di Stasio & Larsen 2020 sourceSupported

The magnitude of racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring varies significantly across countries and minority groups.

“The magnitude of this discrimination, however, varies significantly over countries and minority groups (Quillian et al. 2019).”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “although levels vary significantly over countries”

• cites Quillian et al. 2019 sourceSupported

There is high consistency between the country levels of discrimination in the Quillian et al. (2019) meta-analysis and the GEMM studies.

“There is high consistency between the country levels of discrimination in the Quillian et al. ( 2019) meta-analysis and the GEMM studies (see Di Stasio et al. 2019 andDi Stasio &Lancee 2020).”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported
• cites Di Stasio et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Di Stasio &Lancee 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There has been little evidence of change in rates of hiring discrimination against minority groups in the United Kingdom over time.

“Heath & Di Stasio (2019) perform a similar analysis for the United Kingdom and find little evidence of change in rates of hiring discrimination against minority groups over time.”

• cites Heath & Di Stasio (2019) sourceSupported

The United States has rates of discrimination similar to those of the lower-rate European countries.

“The United States has rates of discrimination similar to those of the lower-rate European countries.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported

Kang et al. (2016) found Asian American and Black applicants who whitewash their resumes receive significantly more callbacks than applicants who do not.

“In the United States, Kang et al. (2016) find that Asian American and Black applicants who whitewash their resumes (either by changing their first name or by removing experience with minority organizations) receive significantly more callbacks than applicants who do not, although this finding might also reflect the clarity of the race signal or concerns about language proficiency.”

• cites Kang et al. (2016) sourcePartly supported

  The Results report significantly more callbacks for both Black and Asian applicants when both names and experiences were whitened. But the citing sentence's “either” formulation overstates the findings: name-only whitening was not statistically significant for Black applicants, and experience-only whitening was not statistically significant for Asian applicants. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Quillian et al. (2019) found somewhat lower racial discrimination on average for studies employing applicants with a college education or more compared with applicants with less education.

“The meta-analysis by Quillian et al. (2019) finds evidence of somewhat lower racial discrimination on average for studies employing applicants with a college education or more compared with applicants with less education.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported

Housing studies find evidence of declines in discrimination over the past 25-35 years both internationally and in the United States.

“Patterns are different: housing studies find evidence of declines in discrimination over the past 25-35 years both internationally (Auspurg et al. 2019, Flage 2018) and in the United States (Quillian et al. 2020a), while studies of employment discrimination find little evidence of change over time (see point 4).”

• cites Auspurg et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Flage 2018 sourceCould not verify

  Flage is cited for the international part of the sentence, not the separate U.S. claim. The Method and data section describes studies from 2006–2017 across 14 countries, and the results report discrimination levels, but the passages found do not assess whether discrimination declined over 25–35 years. I searched for temporal trends and declines in the paper’s copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Quillian et al. 2020aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Adida et al. (2010) found higher discrimination against an immigrant from Senegal with signals of Muslim religion than one with Christian signals.

“Adida et al. (2010), for example, find evidence of higher discrimination against an immigrant from Senegal with signals of Muslim religion than one with Christian signals.”

• cites Adida et al. (2010) sourceSupported

Quillian et al. (2019) found no association between unemployment rates and measures of discrimination in audit studies.

“A meta-analysis by Quillian et al. (2019) finds no association between unemployment rates and measures of discrimination in audit studies.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2019) sourceSupported

There is an intensifying interaction of race and criminal background: callback rates among Black respondents with criminal backgrounds were particularly low.

“Pager (2003), Pager et al. (2009), and Wells (2013) also find an intensifying interaction of race and criminal background: Callback rates among Black respondents with criminal backgrounds were particularly low.”

• cites Pager (2003) sourcePartly supported

  In “Racial Differences in the Effects of a Criminal Record” (p. 23), Pager reports that the relative callback penalty for a criminal record was larger for Black applicants and describes the combined barriers as intensifying stigma. But the paper says the race-by-record interaction was not statistically significant in the full sample, a qualification missing from the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Pager et al. (2009)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wells (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In the Netherlands, a criminal record does not appear to have much effect on the likelihood of receiving a callback.

“In the Netherlands, Van den Berg et al. (2020) find that a criminal record does not appear to have much effect on the likelihood of receiving a callback; instead, ethnic minority applicants face substantial discrimination regardless of criminal record.”

• cites Van den Berg et al. (2020) sourceSupported

Koopmans et al. (2019) found evidence that some discrimination against Turkish immigrants and Muslims may reflect evaluations of cultural differences from German people.

“Using a regression procedure, Koopmans et al. (2019) find evidence that some of the discrimination against Turkish immigrants and Muslims may reflect evaluations of cultural differences from German people.”

• cites Koopmans et al. (2019) sourceSupported

Pager (2016) found employers who discriminated in her field experiment were more likely to subsequently go out of business than those that did not.

“Second, Pager (2016) finds that employers who discriminated in her field experiment were more likely to subsequently go out of business than those that did not, consistent with economic models of taste discrimination.”

• cites Pager (2016) sourceSupported

In the Netherlands, ethnic minority applicants face substantial discrimination regardless of criminal record.

“instead, ethnic minority applicants face substantial discrimination regardless of criminal record.”

• cites Van den Berg et al. (2020) sourceSupported

Private employers discriminate considerably more than public employers in Great Britain, France, and Norway.

“9. Public sector employers discriminate less.Studies in Great Britain, France, and Norway find considerably higher discrimination by private employers than by public employers (Cahuc et al. 2019, Midtbøen 2016, Wood et al. 2009).”

• cites Cahuc et al. 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.2 reports substantially more discrimination by private employers in France at the interview-invitation stage, and the Introduction reports similar correspondence-study findings for Great Britain and Norway. But the claim omits that stage limitation: the Introduction says lower invitation discrimination in the French public sector is compatible with stronger discrimination there after interviews. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Midtbøen 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wood et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Felony convictions have strong negative effects on callback.

“They find strong negative effects on callback of felony convictions (Decker et al. 2015, Galgano 2009, Mobasseri 2019, Pager 2003, Pager et al. 2009).”

• cites Decker et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Galgano 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mobasseri 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The “Callbacks for Job Applicants Perceived to Bear a Criminal Record” section reports an 11.9-percentage-point reduction in callback likelihood for applicants signaling a criminal record (P < .01). The study-design section describes that signal as an intended nonviolent drug conviction, but does not establish that the conviction was a felony; the felony-specific wording is therefore not fully supported. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The Daniel (1968) study was the first large-scale field experimental study of discrimination in hiring.

“The first large-scale field experimental studies of discrimination in hiring that we know of is the Daniel (1968) study in England.”

• cites Daniel 1968Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There are 147 field experiments of discrimination in hiring across countries.

“Table 2 Number of field experiments of discrimination in hiring by country Country Number of studies Australia 3 Austria 1 Belgium 4 Canada 7 China 1 Czech Republic 2 Denmark 2 Finland 2 France 24 Georgia 1 Germany 6 Great Britain 12 Greece 2 Hungary 1 Ireland 1 Israel 2 Italy 2 Malaysia 1 Mexico 1 Netherlands 15 Norway 5 Peru 1 Poland 1 Russia 1 Singapore 1 Spain 3 Sweden 8 Switzerland 3 Turkey 1”

A large majority of field experiments on hiring use receipt of an invitation for an interview or a request for further information (callback) as their main outcome.

“In the case of hiring, a large majority of field experiments use the receipt of an invitation for an interview or a request for further information as their main outcome, often called a callback.”

A few field experiments on hiring discrimination have been conducted outside North America, Western Europe, and Australia, including studies of discrimination against Uighurs in China, Chinese in Malaysia, and indigenous people in Peru.

“The few studies outside of these locations include studies of discrimination against Uighurs in China, Chinese in Malaysia, and indigenous people in Peru.”

Discrimination ratios for country and target group combinations with at least two studies show substantial variation, ranging from 1.0 to 3.07.

“Table 3 shows discrimination ratios for country and target group combinations with at least two studies.2 The number indicates the weighted average discrimination ratio over studies.However, as the table shows, there is substantial variation in discrimination levels, ranging from 1.0 (parity with the White majority for European immigrants in the Netherlands) to 3.07 (Middle Eastern and North”

Overall, Whites receive about 50% more callbacks than non-Whites on average.

“Overall, Whites receive about 50% more callbacks than non-Whites on average.”

Racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring has hardly declined over time.

“These studies show that racial and ethnic discrimination is a pervasive international phenomenon that has hardly declined over time, although levels vary significantly over countries.”

The discrimination ratio of 3.07 for Middle Eastern and North African groups in Israel indicates that Jewish Israelis receive more than three times as many callbacks compared with Arab Israelis.

“the latter indicating that Jewish Israelis receive more than three times as many callbacks compared with Arab Israelis.”

The large majority of field experiments on hiring discrimination have been conducted in North America, Western Europe, and Australia.

“The large majority of studies have been in North America, Western Europe, and Australia.”

The results in Table 3 suggest that discrimination against non-Whites holds true for Australia as well.

“The results in Table 3 suggest this holds true for Australia as well.”

Most studies do not find large occupational differences in racial discrimination.

“Most studies do not find large occupational differences in racial discrimination.”

There is no established way to use field experiment results to understand the extent to which discrimination creates racial disparities.

“A final limitation of field experiments is that there is no established way to use the results to understand the extent to which discrimination creates racial disparities.”

Field experiments of discrimination in hiring are not completely uniform in design; they vary in occupations, applicant details, and target groups.

“A problem in comparing field experiments is that the studies are not completely uniform in design.Field experiments vary in the exact occupations they cover, in the details of their fictitious applicants, in the target group they focus on, and so on.”

Oreopoulos (2011) found few differences in outcomes across a range of white-collar occupations.

“Oreopoulos (2011, table 6) likewise finds few differences in outcomes across a range of white-collar occupations.”

• cites Oreopoulos (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Statistical analysis of observational data cannot typically definitively establish that the residual disparity is only discrimination because it requires all nonracial causes to be accounted for.

“because it requires all nonracial causes to have been accounted for, it is typically debatable whether the remaining residual is only discrimination (Natl.Res.Counc.2004).”

• cites Natl.Res.Counc.2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Statistical discrimination creates the possibility for vicious cycles in which discrimination contributes to racial inequalities that then become the basis for further discrimination.

“Furthermore, statistical discrimination creates the possibility for vicious cycles in which discrimination contributes to racial inequalities that then become the basis for further discrimination (e.g., Loury 2002).”

• cites Loury 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In Daniel's 1968 employment tests, out of 40 tests, 15 White testers received positive replies compared with only one non-White tester.

“In employment applications, out of 40 tests, 15 White testers received positive replies, compared with only one non-White tester.”

• cites Daniel 1968Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is mixed evidence on occupation and education in racial discrimination.

“7.There is mixed evidence on occupation and education.Most studies do not find large occupational differences in racial discrimination.”

Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) found little evidence of variation in discrimination over four white-collar occupations or industries.

“The classic study by Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) finds little evidence of variation in discrimination over four white-collar occupations or industries, noting the surprising uniformity of discrimination.”

• cites Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Self-reports of discrimination may overestimate discrimination because targets may interpret poor treatment as discriminatory when it has another basis.

“or they may overestimate discrimination because targets may interpret poor treatment as discriminatory when it has another basis.”

Racial discrimination is driven by perceived race or racial cues in the context in which discrimination occurs.

“Importantly, discrimination is driven by perceived race or racial cues in the context in which discrimination occurs.”

Self-reports of discrimination may underestimate discrimination because targets may sometimes not be aware of discrimination that occurs.

“self-reports may underestimate discrimination because targets may sometimes not be aware of discrimination that occurs”

The results on no change in discrimination are a sobering counterpoint to the idea of inevitable declines in discrimination over time.

“these results are a sobering counterpoint to the idea of inevitable declines in discrimination over time.”

Studies differ about intersections with gender in hiring discrimination.

“6.Studies differ about intersections with gender.”

Arai et al. (2018) found more discrimination against Arab men than Arab women in Sweden.

“Likewise, Arai et al. (2018) find more discrimination against Arab men than Arab women in Sweden.”

• cites Arai et al. (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Countries differ considerably in hiring discrimination levels.

“3. Countries differ considerably in hiring discrimination levels.”

Some racial discrimination is motivated by discrimination against shadow identities correlated with race rather than race itself.

“Corresponding to the basis of discrimination in perception, some racial discrimination is motivated by discrimination against identities correlated with race rather than race itself.We refer to these identities as shadow identities.”

Bursell (2014) found no statistically significant difference in discrimination by gender against Arab applicants in Sweden.

“In Sweden, Bursell (2014) find no statistically significant difference in discrimination by gender against Arab applicants.”

• cites Bursell (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Surveys or in-depth interviews with employers have limitations as measures of discrimination because of strong social desirability bias.

“Surveys or in-depth interviews with employers provide insights into employer thinking but have obvious limitations as measures of discrimination because of strong social desirability bias.”

Quillian et al. (2020b) found that racial discrimination in hiring in field experiments without callback outcomes tends to be significantly underestimated because post-callback discrimination is omitted.

“These results show that racial discrimination in hiring in field experiments without callback outcomes tends to be significantly underestimated because post-callback discrimination is omitted.”

• cites Quillian et al. (2020b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Carlsson (2010) found no difference in discrimination against first- and second-generation immigrants in Sweden.

“Carlsson (2010), for example, designed a field experiment to compare discrimination against first-and second-generation immigrants in Sweden, finding no difference in discrimination.”

• cites Carlsson (2010) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Field experiments are superior to other approaches in providing the clearest and most convincing assessments of direct discrimination in hiring.

“Despite these limitations, field experiments are superior to other approaches in providing the clearest and most convincing assessments of direct discrimination in hiring.”

Field experiments can confidently determine that perceived race rather than other factors drives racial gaps in outcomes because applicants are matched on job-relevant characteristics.

“As a result, field experiments can confidently determine that it is perceived race rather than other factors that drives the racial gaps in outcomes.”

Dahl & Krog (2018) found significantly more discrimination against men with Arabic-sounding names contrasted with women in Denmark.

“In Denmark, Dahl & Krog (2018) find significantly more discrimination against men with Arabic-sounding names contrasted with women.”

• cites Dahl & Krog (2018) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Immigrant generation differences in discrimination are small.

“5. Immigrant generation differences in discrimination are small.Several analyses find that foreign-born and native-born children of immigrants experience fairly similar levels of discrimination.”

In cross-national context, data on important outcomes like income or employment status that include race and ethnicity are often unavailable.

“data on important outcomes, like income or employment status, that include race and ethnicity data are often unavailable (see Simon 2012).”

• cites Simon 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Only 17.5% of resume audits employ name pretests.

“Gaddis (2017a) finds, however, that only 17.5% of resume audits employ name pretests.”

• cites Gaddis (2017a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring is a worldwide phenomenon found in all countries that have conducted field experiments.

“Existing studies establish that racial and ethnic discrimination is a worldwide phenomenon found in all countries that have conducted field experiments.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted

  “These studies show that racial and ethnic discrimination is a pervasive international phenomenon that has hardly declined over time, although levels vary significantly over countries.”

The lower discrimination by larger employers may be because larger employers more often follow formalized hiring procedures including diversity management efforts.

“This may be because larger employers more often follow formalized hiring procedures including diversity management efforts (e.g., Dobbin et al. 2011).”

• cites Dobbin et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Cultural distance increases hiring discrimination in Europe.

“10.Cultural distance increases discrimination.In Europe, evidence from several studies suggests that there may be significantly more discrimination against minority group members who are viewed as less assimilated to the culture of the White majority in the country.”

Kaas & Manger (2012) found no discrimination in a field experimental study in Germany when reference letters for applicants include positive information about the applicants.

“Correspondingly, Kaas & Manger (2012) find no discrimination in a field experimental study in Germany when reference letters for applicants include positive information about the applicants.”

• cites Kaas & Manger (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Criminal background is a disadvantage in hiring.

“12. Criminal background is a disadvantage and shows mixed results on interaction with race.”

Bartkoski et al. (2018) found discrimination against Muslims to be lower in the United States than in Europe.

“They also find discrimination against Muslims to be lower in the United States than in Europe.”

• cites Bartkoski et al. (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Some discrimination based on identities distinct from race, but significantly correlated with it-shadow identities-plays a role in racial discrimination.

“Some discrimination based on identities distinct from race, but significantly correlated with it-what we have called shadow identities-plays a role in racial discrimination.”

Evidence on interactions of race and unemployment scarring is mixed.

“14.Evidence on interactions of race and unemployment scarring is mixed.”

Evidence from field experiments on labor market tightness and discrimination is mixed.

“13.Evidence on labor market tightness and discrimination is mixed.Many studies of unemployment find that the gap between White and minority unemployment rates tends to close as overall unemployment rates drop.This has led some to suggest that discrimination declines when labor markets are tight.Evidence from field experiments, however, is highly mixed.”

Agan & Starr (2018) found that when employers cannot ask about past criminal record, racial discrimination increases.

“First, a US field experiment by Agan & Starr (2018), conducted across a change in policy that prevented employers from checking criminal backgrounds of applicants, finds evidence that when employers cannot ask about past criminal record, racial discrimination increases.”

• cites Agan & Starr (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Increasing information about applicants can reduce hiring discrimination.

“17.Increasing information about applicants can reduce discrimination.Employers may rely less on group stereotypes when they have more individual information about employees' characteristics.Several findings from field experiments support this view.”

In the housing literature, studies find less discrimination when more nonracial information is solicited up-front from renters.

“Third, in the housing literature, studies have coded the amount of information presented in the application and find less discrimination when more nonracial information is solicited up-front from renters (Auspurg et al. 2019).”

• cites Auspurg et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Some employers discount Black applicants because they assume these applicants may have criminal backgrounds in the absence of information from a background check.

“This suggests that some employers discount Black applicants because they assume these applicants may have criminal backgrounds in the absence of information from a background check (see also Raphael 2021).”

• cites Raphael 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Carlsson & Rooth (2012) found greater discrimination against Arab applicants in regions of Sweden with more negative attitudes toward immigrants on a population survey.

“First, Carlsson & Rooth (2012) find greater discrimination against Arab applicants in a field experiment in regions of Sweden with more negative attitudes toward immigrants on a population survey.”

• cites Carlsson & Rooth (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Housing discrimination and employment discrimination patterns are distinct.

“16.Housing discrimination and employment discrimination patterns are distinct.”

The Pager finding is consistent with economic models of taste discrimination.

“consistent with economic models of taste discrimination.”

Baert et al. (2015) found less discrimination for high-demand occupations in the Netherlands.

“However, a study of occupations subject to high demand (bottleneck occupations) in the Netherlands finds less discrimination for the high-demand occupations (Baert et al. 2015).”

• cites Baert et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Weichselbaumer (2020) found ethnically Turkish women applying for jobs in Germany receive much lower callback rates if they wear a headscarf in their photo than if they do not.

“Similarly, Weichselbaumer (2020) finds that ethnically Turkish women applying for jobs in Germany receive much lower callback rates if they wear a headscarf in their photo than if they do not (photos are standard in job applications in Germany).”

• cites Weichselbaumer (2020)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Baert et al. (2015) found lower discrimination in high-demand occupations than in low-demand occupations in Belgium.

“However, Baert et al. (2015) find lower discrimination in high-demand occupations than in low-demand occupations in Belgium.”

• cites Baert et al. (2015) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Members of racial and ethnic groups who present as culturally similar to the White majority experience less discrimination.

“There is also evidence that members of racial and ethnic groups who present as culturally similar to the White majority experience less discrimination (e.g., for members of immigrant ethnic groups who have a White native first name).”

There is little correlation between countries' levels of employment discrimination and countries' levels of housing market discrimination.

“Likewise, looking across countries, there is little correlation between countries' levels of employment discrimination and countries' level of housing market discrimination.”

Pedulla (2018) did not find evidence of additive effects of race and unemployment in the US.

“In a US study, Pedulla (2018), by contrast, does not find evidence of additive effects of race and unemployment.”

• cites Pedulla (2018) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Discrimination levels appear to be specific to the domain in which the discrimination occurs.

“Discrimination levels appear to be specific to the domain in which the discrimination occurs.”

A single level of racism in a country or population does not uniformly drive discrimination.

“The field experimental literature on discrimination suggests that a single level of racism in a country or population does not uniformly drive discrimination.”

Non-White race, rather than ethnic differences, most strongly determines hiring discrimination.

“Non-White race, rather than ethnic differences, most strongly determines hiring discrimination.”

The ubiquity of discrimination against non-White minority groups in Western countries regardless of context suggests an important cross-national role for race in hiring decisions.

“The ubiquity of discrimination against non-White minority groups in Western countries regardless of context suggests an important cross-national role for race in hiring decisions.”

Some discrimination against US Black applicants is driven by stereotypes that tie race and criminal backgrounds.

“And some discrimination against US Black applicants is driven by stereotypes that tie race and criminal backgrounds.”

Prejudice plays a role in hiring discrimination.

“15.Evidence suggests prejudice plays a role.Results from at least two studies suggest a role for prejudice or other forms of animus in discrimination.”

Thijssen et al. (2019) found no effect of application features (photos, final course grade, self-description as hard-working) on hiring discrimination.

“However, Thijssen et al. (2019) randomly assigned resumes to photos, reported a final course grade, and included in the cover letter a self-description as a hard-working person.They find no effect of these application features on hiring discrimination.”

• cites Thijssen et al. (2019)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Carlsson & Rooth (2007) found more discrimination by employers at workplaces with fewer than 20 employees in Sweden.

“Likewise, Carlsson & Rooth (2007) find more discrimination by employers at workplaces with fewer than 20 employees in Sweden.”

• cites Carlsson & Rooth (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

German-speaking countries have a high level of information provided on initial applications.

“Second, the German-speaking countries in Europe are distinct from most other countries for the high level of information provided on initial applications.”

Employment discrimination studies find little evidence of change over time.

“while studies of employment discrimination find little evidence of change over time (see point 4).”

These studies provide some support for ideas about cultural homophily in hiring as a basis for racial discrimination.

“Overall, these studies provide some support for ideas about cultural homophily in hiring as a basis for racial discrimination.”

Duguet et al. (2010) found native-born applicants with French first names and North African last names were subject to significantly less discrimination than those with both North African first and last names.

“For instance, a study by Duguet et al. (2010) finds that native-born applicants (indicated on resume) with French first names and North African last names were subject to significantly less discrimination than those with both North African first and last names.”

• cites Duguet et al. (2010) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Some studies find no interaction between race and criminal background.

“However, Galgano (2009), Uggen et al. (2014), andDecker (2015) find no such interaction.”

• cites Galgano (2009)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Uggen et al. (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Decker (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Gorsuch & Rho (2017) found Somali Americans experience slightly lower hiring discrimination than African Americans.

“In the US context, Gorsuch & Rho (2017) find that Somali Americans, many of whom are Muslim, experience slightly lower hiring discrimination than African Americans.”

• cites Gorsuch & Rho (2017)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Larger employers discriminate significantly less against minority applicants than smaller employers.

“8. Large employers discriminate less.Banerjee et al. (2018) in Canada and Wood et al. (2009) in Great Britain find that larger employers discriminate significantly less against minority applicants than smaller employers.”

• cites Banerjee et al. (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wood et al. (2009)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Individuals originating from the Middle East are discriminated against partly because they are presumed to be Muslim.

“Individuals originating from the Middle East are discriminated against partly because they are presumed to be Muslim, for instance.”

Employers may rely less on group stereotypes when they have more individual information about employees' characteristics.

“Employers may rely less on group stereotypes when they have more individual information about employees' characteristics.”

Vuolo et al. (2017) found no increase in discrimination against African Americans as the United States tipped into recession in 2007.

“Vuolo et al. (2017) examine whether discrimination against African Americans changed in a resume audit that was fielded as the United States tipped into recession in 2007, and they find no increase in discrimination.”

• cites Vuolo et al. (2017)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Racial unemployment gaps could decrease as labor markets tighten without discrimination changing because employers lack applications from well-qualified Whites, resulting in increased hiring of minorities even if the White preference of employers remains unchanged.

“Note that racial unemployment gaps could decrease as labor markets tighten without discrimination changing because employers lack applications from well-qualified Whites, resulting in increased hiring of minorities even if the White preference of employers remains unchanged.”

Hiring discrimination can be reduced significantly by procedural and legal steps.

“A hopeful conclusion suggested by these results is that hiring discrimination can be reduced significantly by procedural and legal steps.”

Countries vary significantly, and often in somewhat surprising ways, in levels of racial discrimination in hiring.

“Field experiments show that countries vary significantly, and often in somewhat surprising ways, in levels of racial discrimination in hiring.”

The large differences that exist in discrimination levels over countries seem to result in part from a variety of institutional and situational differences.

“The large differences that exist in discrimination levels over countries seem to result in part from a variety of institutional and situational differences, but further research is needed to provide further explanations and to better test these explanations with evidence.”

Racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring is a pervasive international phenomenon.

“The large body of field experimental studies suggests that racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring is a pervasive international phenomenon.”

Field experiments have been important for establishing these facts with greater certainty than other methods.

“Field experiments have been important for establishing these facts with greater certainty than other methods, and they also have the advantage that their results are readily understandable by lawmakers and the public.”