Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Heckman argued that most 1990s black-white earnings disparity was due to skills brought to the market, not labor market discrimination, and described labor market discrimination as a problem of an earlier era.

“Heckman (1998:101–102) puts the point most clearly, writing that “most of the disparity in earnings between blacks and whites in the labor market of the 1990s is due to differences in skills they bring to the market, and not to discrimination within the labor market.””

• cites Heckman 1998 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Although some tester combinations have small samples, the results tend to support consistent effects across a number of tester comparisons.

“These results, although sensitive to small sample sizes for some combinations, tend to support the consistency of effects across a number of tester comparisons.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Race-based job channeling is a process by which minority applicants are steered toward particular job types, often those with greater physical demands and reduced customer contact.

“Race-based job channeling represents a process by which minority applicants are steered toward particular job types, often those characterized by greater physical demands and reduced customer contact.”

May combine two claims.

Of the 171 tests by the first team, white testers were singled out for callbacks or job offers 15 times, while there was only one case in which a black tester received a positive response when his white or Latino partner did not.

“Indeed, of the 171 tests conducted by the first team (no criminal background), white testers were singled out for callbacks or job offers 15 times, whereas there was only a single case in which a black tester received a positive response when his white or Latino partner did not.”

May combine two claims.

In the second experiment, whites with criminal records received positive responses in 17.2 percent of 169 applications, Latinos 15.4 percent, and blacks 13.0 percent.

“In this experiment, whites with criminal records obtained positive responses in 17.2 percent of 169 job applications, compared with 15.4 percent for Latinos and 13.0 percent for blacks.”

May combine two claims.

In a warehouse worker position, the black tester Zuri was told he could leave and was not hired, while his white and Latino partners were asked to return to start work.

“Zuri returned to the bus stop, while his white and Latino test partners were both asked to come back at 5 p.m. that day to start work.”

May combine two claims.

Personal contact appears to weaken the effect of race, suggesting that testers' performance minimized rather than exaggerated the measures of racial bias.

“if anything, personal contact appears to weaken the effect of race, suggesting that testers’ performance minimized, rather than exaggerated, our measures of racial bias”

May combine two claims.

In the second experiment, Latinos were preferred to blacks, but the difference is not significant.

“As in the previous experiment, Latinos were preferred to blacks, but here the difference is not significant.”

May combine two claims.

The typology cannot account for all differential treatment; at least half of employer decisions were made with little or no personal contact, leaving the decision unobserved.

“Likewise, this typology cannot account for all of the differential treatment we observe—at least half of the employer decisions were made on the basis of little or no personal contact between applicant and employer, leaving the nature of the decision entirely unobserved.”

May combine two claims.

In the second experiment, the white-black ratio is a statistically insignificant 1.32, compared with a significant 2.04 when the white tester had a clean record.

“The white-black ratio is now a statistically insignificant 1.32, compared with a significant ratio of 2.04 when the white tester had a clean record.”

May combine two claims.

The white-black ratio of 2.04 is substantively large and statistically significant.

“By contrast, the white-black ratio of 2.04 is substantively large and statistically significant.”

May combine two claims.

In the second experiment, the white-Latino ratio is close to one and its confidence interval overlaps one by a large margin.

“Figure 2b shows that the white-Latino ratio is close to one and the confidence interval overlaps one by a large margin.”

May combine two claims.

The white testers' racial advantage narrows substantially when the white tester has a criminal record, but the white applicant with a criminal record still does as well or better than minority applicants without criminal backgrounds.

“The white testers’ racial advantage narrows substantially in this comparison; yet the white applicant with a criminal record still does just as well, if not better, than his minority counterparts with no criminal background.”

May combine two claims.

Cross-validation ratios remain consistently greater than one, indicating employers treat blacks less positively regardless of which testers apply.

“All ratios remain consistently greater than one, indicating that employers treat blacks less positively regardless of which testers are applying for jobs.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Categorical exclusion involves immediate or automatic rejection of a black or minority candidate in favor of a white applicant, occurring early with little negotiated interaction and appearing to reflect rigid racial preferences or beliefs.

“The first type of behavior, categorical exclusion, is characterized by an immediate or automatic rejection of the black (or minority) candidate in favor of a white applicant. Occurring early in the application process, these decisions involve little negotiated interaction but appear to reflect a fairly rigid application of employers’ racial preferences or beliefs.”

May combine two claims.

The authors observe three consistent patterns in employers' responses: categorical exclusion, shifting standards, and race-coded job channeling.

“In particular, three categories of behavior stand out, which we refer to here as: categorical exclusion, shifting standards, and race-coded job channeling.”

May combine two claims.

In a retail clothing sales position, the black tester Joe and Latino tester Josue were told the position was filled or might not work out, while white tester Simon was offered immediate start.

“Joe, one of our black testers, reported that, “[the employer] said the position was just filled and that she would be calling people in for an interview if the person doesn’t work out.””

• Also stated in: § CATEGORICAL EXCLUSION · plain

  “By contrast, Simon, their white test partner, who applied last, had a notably different experience: “I asked what the hiring process was—if they’re taking applications now, interviewing, etc. She looked at my application. ‘You can start immediately?’Yes. ‘Can you start tomorrow?’Yes. ‘10 a.m.’”

May combine two claims.

Many cases contain little that would lead the authors to anticipate the differential treatment that followed, consistent with contemporary discrimination being largely subtle and covert.

“Consistent with the notion that contemporary forms of discrimination are largely subtle and covert, many cases contain little that would lead us to anticipate the differential treatment that followed.”

May combine two claims.

In a Japanese restaurant, the black tester was told there were no server positions and offered a busboy position, while his white test partner was hired for the server position on the spot.

“I told her I was there to apply for the waiter position and she told me that there were no server positions. I told her it was advertised in the paper, and she said there must have been a mistake. She said all she had available was a busboy position.”

May combine two claims.

Minority applicants were disqualified more readily and hired more reluctantly than their white partners with identical skills and experience.

“Minority applicants were disqualified more readily and hired more reluctantly than their white partners with identical skills and experience.”

May combine two claims.

The sample includes many restaurants and independent retailers with less bureaucratic hiring and lacking human resource departments that manage equal employment opportunity obligations of large firms.

“The sample includes many restaurants and independent retailers for whom hiring is less bureaucratic, and who lack the human resource departments that manage the equal employment opportunity obligations of large firms (Dobbin et al. 1993).”

• cites Dobbin et al. 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The testers were college-educated young men with effective self-presentation who, while posing as high school graduates, stood well above the typical applicant for these low-wage jobs.

“The testers were college-educated young men with effective styles of self-presentation. Although posing as high school graduates with more limited skills, these young men stood well above the typical applicant for these low-wage jobs.”

May combine two claims.

Although testers' résumés were matched on education and work experience, some employers seemed to weigh qualifications differently depending on the applicant's race.

“Although testers’ résumés were matched on education and work experience, some employers seemed to weigh qualifications differently depending on the applicant’s race.”

May combine two claims.

Black applicants had about half the likelihood of receiving a callback or job offer compared with equally qualified whites; black and Latino applicants with clean backgrounds fared no better than a white applicant just released from prison.

“Blacks were only half as likely to receive a callback or job offer relative to equally qualified whites; moreover, black and Latino applicants with clean backgrounds fared no better than a white applicant just released from prison.”

May combine two claims.

The episodes of discrimination recorded in this study were seldom characterized by overt racism or hostility; testers rarely perceived clear prejudice.

“The episodes of discrimination recorded in this study were seldom characterized by overt racism or hostility. In fact, our testers rarely perceived any signs of clear prejudice.”

May combine two claims.

Black applicants were channeled into lower positions in nine cases, Latinos in five cases, and whites in only one case.

“Black applicants were channeled into lower positions in nine cases, Latinos were channeled down in five cases, and whites experienced downward channeling in only one case.”

May combine two claims.

In one sales position case, black tester Joe was not allowed to apply due to lack of direct experience, while white tester Kevin and Latino tester Josue, despite similar concerns, were offered the sales job.

“In one case, Joe, a black tester, was not allowed to apply for a sales position due to his lack of direct experience.”

• Also stated in: § SHIFTING STANDARDS · plain

  “Yet, despite their evident lack of qualifications, Kevin and Josue were offered the sales job and asked to come back the next morning.”

May combine two claims.

Personal contact with employers was associated with significantly improved outcomes for all testers and a narrowing of the racial gap.

“On the one hand, personal contact with employers was associated with significantly improved outcomes for all testers and a narrowing of the racial gap (see Appendix, Table A1).”

May combine two claims.

In a lighting store, the black tester who applied for an advertised sales position was offered a stock boy position, while his white and Latino test partners were able to apply for the sales position.

“When she asked what position I was looking for I said I was open, but that since they were looking for a salesperson I would be interested in that. She smiled, put her head in her hand and her elbow on the table and said, ‘I need a stock boy. Can you do stock boy?’”

May combine two claims.

A pattern in the interactions was the use of double standards: seeking higher qualifications from black applicants than non-black applicants, or viewing whites as more qualified than minorities with equivalent resumes.

“A pattern in these interactions, when compared side by side, is the use of double standards—seeking higher qualifications from blacks than non-blacks, or viewing whites as more qualified than minorities who present equivalent résumés.”

May combine two claims.

In a line cook application, the black tester was rejected for lacking experience while the white and Latino testers, who also lacked direct kitchen experience, were invited for a trial.

“None of the testers had direct experience with kitchen work, but the white and Latino applicants were viewed as viable prospects while the black applicant was rejected because he lacked experience.”

May combine two claims.

Whites were more often channeled up than down; in at least six cases, white testers were encouraged to apply for higher-level jobs or jobs requiring more customer contact than the initial position.

“In fact, whites were more often channeled up than down. In at least six cases, white testers were encouraged to apply for jobs that were of a higher-level or required more customer contact than the initial position they inquired about.”

May combine two claims.

In a moving company application, the white tester with identical qualifications received a more favorable response than the black and Latino testers, who were rejected for lacking moving experience.

“Simon, their white test partner, presented identical qualifications, but the employer responded more favorably: “‘To be honest, we’re looking for someone with specific moving experience. But because you’ve worked for [a storage company], that has a little to do with moving.’ He wanted me to come in tomorrow between 10 and 11.””

May combine two claims.

In a clothing retailer, the Latino tester who applied for a sales associate position was offered a stock position and asked to start the next day.

“She then told me that there was a stock position and asked if I would be interested in that.” Josue was offered the stocker job and asked to start the next day.”

May combine two claims.

In that case, lack of experience was not grounds for disqualification for white and Latino candidates, whereas the black applicant was readily dismissed.

“This lack of experience was not grounds for disqualification for the white and Latino candidates, whereas the black applicant was readily dismissed.”

May combine two claims.

Several features of contemporary low-wage labor markets may sustain or renew racialized decision making, contrary to economic theory predicting discrimination's decline through competition.

“Economic theory predicts the decline of discrimination through market competition (Becker 1957), but several features of contemporary low-wage labor markets may sustain or renew racialized decision making.”

• cites Becker 1957Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Theories of statistical discrimination and stereotypes treat race as a heuristic employers use to evaluate applicants about whom little is known; group-based generalizations guide expectations and facilitate decisions when information or time are scarce.

“Theories of both statistical discrimination and stereotypes view race as a heuristic employers use to evaluate job applicants about whom little is known. Here, group-based generalizations provide guidance about the expected profile of individuals from a given group and facilitate decision making when information or time are scarce (Aigner and Cain 1977; Fiske 1998).”

• cites Aigner and Cain 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fiske 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Survey and interview studies find that firms are reluctant to hire young minority men, especially blacks, because they are seen as unreliable, dishonest, or lacking social or cognitive skills.

“A series of studies relying on surveys and in-depth interviews finds that firms are reluctant to hire young minority men—especially blacks—because they are seen as unreliable, dishonest, or lacking in social or cognitive skills (Holzer 1996; Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991; Moss and Tilly 2001; Waldinger and Lichter 2003; Wilson 1996: chap. 5).”

• cites Holzer 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Moss and Tilly 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Small episodes of discrimination experienced at multiple intervals or across multiple contexts can substantially affect aggregate outcomes.

“In this way, even relatively small episodes of discrimination—when experienced at multiple intervals or across multiple contexts—can have substantial effects on aggregate outcomes.”

May combine two claims.

Employers consistently express concerns over black men's soft skills, implying a potential mismatch between new job skill requirements and the perceived skill profile of black male job seekers.

“employers consistently express concerns over the “soft skills” of black men, implying a potential skills mismatch between the skill requirements of new job growth and the perceived skill profile of black male job seekers.”

• cites Moss and Tilly 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Discrimination may operate at the job level rather than the employer level, with black applicants excluded from some job types and channeled into others.

“In this scenario, discrimination may obtain not at the employer level but at the job level, with black applicants excluded from some job types and channeled into others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Decision making under uncertainty and the race-typing of jobs both make discrimination more likely.

“Decision making under uncertainty and the race-typing of jobs both make discrimination more likely.”

May combine two claims.

Clear answers about whether employer discrimination continues are elusive because discrimination is hard to measure; without observing actual hiring decisions, it is difficult to assess how and under what conditions race shapes employer behavior.

“Clear answers are elusive because discrimination is hard to measure. Without observing actual hiring decisions, it is difficult to assess exactly how and under what conditions race shapes employer behavior.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Previous research indicates that the shift from manufacturing to services in low-wage jobs skewed skill demands toward soft skills, for which black men are considered lacking.

“Previous research points to the negative consequences of the changing composition of low-wage jobs for black men, with the shift from manufacturing to services skewing the distribution of skill demands toward “soft skills,” for which black men are considered lacking (Moss and Tilly 2001).”

• cites Moss and Tilly 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Neal and Johnson found that two thirds of the 1990-1991 black-white wage gap was explained by race differences in cognitive test scores measured 11 years earlier, and test scores fully explained white-Latino wage differences.

“They find that two thirds of the black-white gap in wages in 1990 to 1991 can be explained by race differences in cognitive test scores measured 11 years earlier, and test scores fully explain wage differences between whites and Latinos.”

• cites Neal and Johnson 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Back-of-house jobs or those emphasizing manual skills are less likely to activate employer concerns about race.

“Jobs at the “back of the house” or those emphasizing manual skills are less likely to activate concerns of this kind.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Preconceived notions about black men's characteristics or desirability relative to other applicant types are likely to structure opportunity along racial lines, whether based on statistical generalizations or inaccurate stereotypes.

“Whether based on statistical generalizations or inaccurate stereotypes, preconceived notions about the characteristics or desirability of black men relative to other applicant types are likely to structure the distribution of opportunity along racial lines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The growing importance of soft skills, ethnic heterogeneity, and job seekers with criminal records suggests persistence or increasing incidence of discrimination in contemporary low-wage labor markets.

“The growing importance of soft skills, ethnic heterogeneity, and job seekers with criminal records suggest the persistence or increasing incidence of discrimination in contemporary low-wage labor markets.”

May combine two claims.

Nearly a third of black men without a college degree have prison records by their mid-30s, adding to employers' reservations about black male applicants.

“Nearly a third of black men without a college degree have prison records by their mid-30s, adding to employers’ reservations about black male job applicants (Pager 2007b; Pettit and Western 2004).”

• cites Pager 2007bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pettit and Western 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Discrimination can occur at multiple decision points across the employment relationship.

“In reality, discrimination may occur at multiple decision points across the employment relationship.”

May combine two claims.

Interviews with employers in Los Angeles and Chicago suggest consistent preferences for Latinos over blacks, with Latino workers viewed as more pliant, reliable, and hard-working.

“Interviews with employers in Los Angeles and Chicago suggest consistent preferences for Latinos over blacks, with Latino workers viewed as more pliant, reliable, and hard-working (Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991; Waldinger and Lichter 2003).”

• cites Kirschenman and Neckerman 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Waldinger and Lichter 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The analysis uses a hierarchical logistic regression with a random effect for each employer to generalize matched-pair methods to matched triplets.

“We generalize their approach to our matched triplets, fitting a random effect for each employer.”

• cites Ghosh et al. 2000Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors cross-validate by recalculating treatment effects after sequentially omitting employers associated with each individual tester.

“To assess the sensitivity of our results to each tester, we perform a type of cross-validation in which the treatment effect is recalculated for a reduced data set, sequentially omitting those employers associated with each individual tester.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors recalculated key results for each unique combination of testers who were matched in teams during fieldwork.

“Third, we recalculate our key results for each unique combination of testers matched in teams over the course of the fieldwork (see Appendix Table A2).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Résumés were prepared in different fonts and formats and randomly varied across testers, with each résumé used by testers from each race group.

“Résumés were prepared in different fonts and formats and randomly varied across testers, with each résumé used by testers from each race group.”

May combine two claims.

The study design focuses on early hiring stages and avoids situations where employers must choose only one applicant.

“The design of our study, which focuses on the early stages of the hiring process, avoids situations in which employers must choose only a single applicant.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Testers in each team applied to each job within a 24-hour period, with applicant order randomly varied.

“Testers in each team applied to each job within a 24-hour period, randomly varying the order of the applicants.”

May combine two claims.

Current estimates suggest roughly 18 percent of young black men with high school degrees will experience incarceration by their early 30s, and a larger fraction have lower-level convictions and arrests.

“Current estimates suggest that roughly 18 percent of young black men with high school degrees will experience incarceration by their early 30s (Pettit and Western 2004), and a larger fraction surely have lower level convictions and arrests.”

• cites Pettit and Western 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors fit an additional random effect for each tester in their hierarchical logistic regression.

“We allow for this possibility by fitting an additional random effect for each tester in our hierarchical logistic regression.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Testers passed a common training program to ensure uniform behavior in job interviews.

“Finally, the testers passed a common training program to ensure uniform behavior in job interviews.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Each week, job listings were randomly drawn from classified sections of several NYC newspapers and Craigslist; a simple random sample of advertisements was taken each week.

“Each week, we randomly drew job listings from the classified sections of the New York Times, Daily News, New York Post, Village Voice, and the online service Craigslist.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The in-person design allows supplementing experimental findings with qualitative evidence from testers' field notes about job interviews.

“Fortunately, the in-person design of the experiment allows us to further supplement the experimental findings with qualitative evidence from testers’ field notes that report their interactions in job interviews.”

May combine two claims.

Although ex-offenders are disadvantaged relative to applicants without criminal records, the stigma of a felony conviction appears no greater than the stigma of minority status.

“While ex-offenders are disadvantaged in the labor market relative to applicants with no criminal background, the stigma of a felony conviction appears to be no greater than that of minority status.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors reviewed more than 300 applicants to select a final team of 10 testers.

“We reviewed more than 300 applicants to identify our final team of 10 testers.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Using callbacks as a key dependent variable includes cases representing an employer's first screening pass.

“By using “callbacks” as one of our key dependent variables, we include cases that represent an employer’s first pass at applicant screening.”

May combine two claims.

Since race cannot be randomly assigned, audit researchers must use selection and matching to make testers similar on relevant characteristics, which may leave room for bias.

“Because race cannot be experimentally assigned, researchers must rely on effective selection and matching to construct audit teams in which all relevant characteristics of testers are similar—something that may leave substantial room for bias.”

May combine two claims.

Including random effects for employers accounts for correlation among observations from the same employer and reduces standard errors.

“The employer effects, αi, induce a correlation among observations from the same employers and reduce standard errors, as in the usual matched-pair inference.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Theories of statistical discrimination point to high incarceration rates among young black men as a key explanation for employers' indifference between white felons and blacks with potentially unobserved criminal histories.

“Theories of statistical discrimination point to the very high incarceration rates among young black men as a key explanation for employers’ indifference between white felons and blacks with potentially unobserved criminal histories.”

May combine two claims.

The warehouse job was a manual position for which Zuri was at least as able, yet he was passed over in favor of his white and Latino counterparts.

“The job is a manual position for which Zuri is at least as able, yet he is readily passed over in favor of his white and Latino counterparts.”

May combine two claims.

Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) used a correspondence test that randomly assigned résumé characteristics to white- and black-sounding names, largely removing concerns about unobserved characteristics.

“Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) remove tester effects in a “correspondence test” that sent résumés with common white and black names to employers in Boston and Chicago. Their design allows the random assignment of résumé characteristics to white- and black-sounding names, largely removing concerns about unobserved characteristics.”

• cites Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Testers were assigned fictitious résumés indicating identical educational attainment and comparable high school, work experience, and neighborhood of residence.

“Testers were assigned fictitious résumés indicating identical educational attainment and comparable qualities of high school, work experience (quantity and kind), and neighborhood of residence.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Heckman and Siegelman (1993) argue that researchers know little about the hard-to-observe characteristics that employers value.

“Heckman and Siegelman (1993) argue that researchers know little about the hard-to-observe characteristics highly prized by employers.”

• cites Heckman and Siegelman (1993)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Testers were matched on verbal skills, interactional styles (eye contact, demeanor, verbosity), and physical attractiveness.

“They were matched on the basis of their verbal skills, interactional styles (level of eye contact, demeanor, and verbosity), and physical attractiveness.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Latino testers spoke unaccented English, were U.S. citizens of Puerto Rican descent, and claimed no Spanish language ability to help ensure comparability.

“To help ensure comparability, the Latino testers spoke in unaccented English, were U.S. citizens of Puerto Rican descent, and, like the other testers, claimed no Spanish language ability.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Each tester completed standard training, dressed uniformly, and was subject to periodic quality-control spot checks.

“Each tester passed a standard training period, was required to dress uniformly, and was subject to periodic spot checks for quality control.”

May combine two claims.

If race is only a minor concern, all audit team members should pass the first cut; if race matters prominently in first review, it is being used as more than a tie-breaker.

“If race represents only a minor concern for employers, we would expect all members of our audit team to make it through the first cut. If race figures prominently in the first round of review, we can infer that this characteristic has been invoked as more than a mere tie-breaker.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The reported confidence intervals come from models that include employer and tester random effects.

“Confidence intervals below are based on models that include employer and tester random effects.”

May combine two claims.

At multiple points in the hiring process, black or Latino applicants face additional hurdles or barriers that reduce their chances of employment and affect the quality of jobs for which they are considered.

“At multiple points in the hiring process, black (or Latino) applicants face additional hurdles or barriers that reduce their chances of employment and affect the quality of jobs for which they are considered.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The sampled employers well represent the kinds of low-skill service work that dominate low-wage urban labor markets.

“Nevertheless, our sampled employers well represent the kinds of low-skill service work that dominate low-wage urban labor markets.”

May combine two claims.

Racialized assessments of applicant quality and fit affect both hiring decisions and job placement, with minority applicants more often channeled into positions involving less skill or customer contact.

“Furthermore, racialized assessments of applicant quality and “fit” affect not only the decision to hire, but also decisions about job placement, with minority applicants more often channeled into positions involving less skill or customer contact.”

May combine two claims.

Employers appear to apply more stringent hiring criteria to minority workers, preferring whites for jobs requiring greater skill or responsibility.

“Consistent with the testers’ field notes, employers appear to apply more stringent hiring criteria to minority workers, preferring whites for jobs that require greater skill or responsibility.”

May combine two claims.

The significant evidence of discrimination found in field experiments contrasts sharply with recent survey research showing small racial differences in wages.

“The significant evidence of discrimination found in these studies contrasts sharply with recent survey research showing small racial differences in wages (Farkas and Vicknair 1996; Neal and Johnson 1996).”

• cites Farkas and Vicknair 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Neal and Johnson 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

If discrimination discourages all but the most motivated and able black job seekers, black wage earners would represent an increasingly select group.

“If discrimination discourages all but the most motivated and able black job seekers, black wage earners would represent an increasingly select group.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Episodes of discrimination may have long-term effects that weaken minority workers' attachment to the labor market and reduce labor force participation.

“Episodes of discrimination may not only cause unemployment at one point in time, but may have long-term effects that weaken minority workers’ attachment to the labor market and reduce labor force participation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The effects of discrimination may vary across the population, concentrating perhaps among young men whose employment rates are lowest.

“The effects of discrimination may also vary across the population, concentrating perhaps among the young men whose employment rates are lowest.”

May combine two claims.

Categorical exclusion is one important form of discrimination, demonstrating rigid barriers facing minority job seekers.

“Categorical exclusion represents one important form of discrimination. While these rather abrupt interactions reveal little about the underlying motivation that drives employers’ decisions, they do demonstrate the sometimes rigid barriers facing minority job seekers.”

May combine two claims.

Testers' interpersonal skills seemed to reduce the influence of racial bias, or at least did not exacerbate it.

“The testers’ interpersonal skills seemed to reduce the influence of racial bias, or at least did not exacerbate it.”

May combine two claims.

Race shapes employers' evaluations in subtle but systematic ways, with implications for structuring opportunity along racial lines.

“Our testers’ experiences suggest how race shapes employers’ evaluations in subtle but systematic ways, with important implications for structuring opportunity along racial lines.”

May combine two claims.

In evaluating applicant qualifications, minority applicants, especially black men, appear to be held to a higher standard than white counterparts; black men are disqualified more readily or hired more reluctantly than white partners with identical skills and experience.

“In evaluating applicant qualifications, minority applicants, and black men in particular, appear to be held to a higher standard than their white counterparts. Black men are disqualified more readily, or hired more reluctantly, than their white partners with identical skills and experience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The experience of discrimination may add to the psychic costs of the job search process, prompting some to opt out altogether.

“Second, the experience of discrimination may add to the psychic costs of the job search process, prompting some to opt out altogether.”

May combine two claims.

Since the 1990s, increasing numbers of young black men have dropped out of the formal labor market, contributing to an artificial convergence of black and white wages.

“Since the 1990s, increasing numbers of young black men have dropped out of the formal labor market, contributing to an artificial convergence of black and white wages (Western and Pettit 2005).”

• cites Western and Pettit 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Discrimination may produce broad cultural effects in which work itself is de-legitimated as a fair source of opportunity.

“Discrimination may produce broad cultural effects in which work itself is de-legitimated as a fair source of opportunity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The findings add to a large research program demonstrating the continuing contribution of discrimination to racial inequality in the post-civil rights era.

“Our findings add to a large research program demonstrating the continuing contribution of discrimination to racial inequality in the post-civil rights era.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The audit experiment focuses on employers' hiring behaviors but does not examine job seekers' skills, preferences, and networks.

“The audit experiment necessarily focuses on employers’ hiring behaviors but does not examine the skills, preferences, and networks of job seekers.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The results should not be interpreted as showing the level of discrimination actively experienced by minority job seekers in the New York labor market.

“At the same time, while we find robust evidence of racial discrimination, we should be careful not to interpret these results as showing the level of discrimination actively experienced by minority job seekers in the New York labor market.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relative magnitude of the effects of discrimination compared with human and social capital is unknown.

“We do not know, and few research designs have been devised to test, the relative magnitude of the effects of discrimination compared with the effects of human and social capital.”

May combine two claims.

Employers sometimes encouraged applicants to apply for different jobs than those initially advertised or inquired about, suggesting race-coding of job types where whites are preferred for certain positions and minorities for others.

“In many cases, these instances of channeling suggest a race-coding of job types, whereby employers prefer whites for certain positions and minorities for others.”

May combine two claims.

These dynamics can lead to longer search or wait times for minority job seekers, which might not be reflected in ultimate wage offers.

“These dynamics can lead to longer search or wait times for minority job seekers, which might not be reflected in ultimate wage offers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The experiment allows inferring discrimination with great certainty, but the effects of discrimination are narrowly defined.

“The experiment allows us to infer discrimination with great certainty, but the effects of discrimination are narrowly defined.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The broader effects of discrimination on cultural dimensions of economic life and over the life course are harder to pinpoint but may indicate more fundamental and intractable inequalities.

“The broader effects of discrimination—on the cultural dimensions of economic life and over the life course—are harder to pinpoint but may indicate more fundamental and intractable inequalities.”

May combine two claims.

Employers appeared to see more potential in the stated qualifications of white applicants and more commonly viewed them as a better fit for more desirable jobs.

“Employers appeared to see more potential in the stated qualifications of white applicants, and they more commonly viewed white applicants as a better fit for more desirable jobs.”