Staring Back at the Surveillance Gaze: The Resistance of LGBTQ+ Users on Social Media

In the paper

“Confronted with inevitable monitoring, users adopt strategies like creating backup accounts, using alternative promotional methods, and deliberately defying censorship.”

In the paper

“Astra told me about his intention to launch a new Instagram profile focused on BDSM content and already identified clear behaviours to adopt so he can avoid content moderation.”

In the paper

“Fred Pokes, in Montréal, also mentioned how they decided to stop posting about political situations, such as sharing updates about Palestine on their professional tattoo page.”

In the paper

“Gabriel, a PhD student based in Montréal, is also using his knowledge to experiment with algorithm recommendations to try to shape an experience that is more reflective of what he would like to see.”

In the paper

“For both Astra and Fred Pokes, a tattoo artist in Montreal, this expectation of discrimination was repeatedly made clear, as they both talked about needing to be prepared in case they got locked out of platforms.”

In the paper

“Sasha Kills, a drag artist based in Berlin and one half of the drag show Omelette du fromage with Nicole M'Pikole, told me that, when they decided to put their gender identity on Instagram, they immediately felt the impact on their account.”

In the paper

“Karl, a Berlin-based user who is part of kink and queer scenes on social media, said that, while using hashtags are necessary for him to build ties within his specific community, he is wary that this might be used to subsequently identify him, with the potential risk of having posts taken down or his account suspended.”

In the paper

“Francis thus felt that his presence is necessary online, and it becomes a form of responsibility that he feels towards others.”

In the paper

“These actions achieve different goals in relation to surveillance: to evade the algorithmic gaze, to push back against surveillance, and to imagine alternatives in the case that there is a need to move away from platforms.”

In the paper

“What is clear from the people interviewed is that they are building a strong body of knowledge about algorithmically driven surveillance.They know how they are being perceived, and they feel seen.”

In the paper

“He mentions that he saw that, when artists are too heavily catering to platform algorithms, they start to lose their essence, their edge in the pool of artists online.They also point to how this catering can become obsessive and hinder creative freedom.”

In the paper

“Karl told me that even though he hasn't experienced algorithmic discrimination, he expects to face it down the line.”

In the paper

“In this case, Sasha witnessed a noticeably decreased engagement (e.g., likes, comments, reactions) with their posts, which led them to the conclusion that they were shadowbanned.”

In the paper

“They reported feeling targeted by algorithms and described various strategies to navigate, circumvent, or resist restrictive platform regulations.”

In the paper

“While some experienced it firsthand, others realized it was happening through their networks and seeing other people reacting to this surveillance.”

In the paper

“Seth mentions that setting this limit was crucial for him so he could keep a sense of agency about his social media presence.”

In the paper

“Surveillance is not something that goes unnoticed or that LGBTQ+ users can forget about: they are continuously confronted by it and have to acknowledge its presence.”

In the paper

“Sasha Kills articulated vividly how queer spaces are always under the threat of co-optation”

In the paper

“This is what Sasha expects to happen on social media: they were once central for queer forms of expressions but, as they have become more widespread, they are moving towards pushing these populations further out and there will soon be no other choice but to move out.”

In the paper

“LGBTQ+ users such as drag artists often have to closely monitor their social media metrics to evaluate posts' performances, and this is where they can usually identify when something is off or went wrong.”

In the paper

“as Astra realized that queer expressions on platforms like Instagram were targeted and punished.”

In the paper

“Jaqqstrap, a drag performer in Montréal, also knew about the surveillance gaze upon him: "Oh, I have been [targeted], you never forget the first time your post gets taken down by Instagram."”

In the paper

“Seth contrasted this behaviour with their straight friends, who do not have to worry about surveillance actively: they don't have to think about their usage in the same kind of way, to be consciously adapting their behaviours, or to set limits on which actions they should perform or not.”

In the paper

“Harpy actually found that cis and straight users could get away these types of posts much more easily, even when they involve sexually explicit content”

In the paper

“Fred Pokes told me that there is a limit to what they are willing to hide to respect platforms regulations”

In the paper

“Nidrawttt told me how, before posting a picture that he feels could be taken down, he will try to get it promoted using the built-in marketing tools on Instagram.”

In the paper

“In a candid tone, he clearly states his awareness of being surveilled while also expressing that he is not surprised by this.”

In the paper

“Harpy, a drag artist in Berlin, told me about a time when one of her posts, a picture where she was wearing a miniskirt and struck a more provocative pose, got quickly taken down for being too explicit, albeit not for going against any guidelines related to nudity.”

In the paper

“Following this incident, he had to develop new strategies to be able to keep using social media, such as creating backup accounts, being even more careful with the content he posts, refraining from expressing political thoughts, and censoring his use of queer lingo shared within his community.”

In the paper

“some users are actively aware of how they are being surveilled and are trying as much as they can to do something about it, not only to protect themselves and their communities but also, more importantly, in the hope that these discriminatory patterns will be challenged.”

In the paper

“I have been actively imagining alternatives to the current social media platforms' ecosystem by directly asking”

In the paper

“Astra, when recounting how he lost his account mentioned a grieving process that was difficult to share.His Instagram page was a years-long record of his transition journey that was completely lost overnight”

In the paper

“What I have encountered first-hand is LGBTQ+ artists, activists, and workers that are quite imaginative in their ways of addressing surveillance but that are also affectively taxed by doing this work.”

In the paper

“Consequently, they feel highly visible yet simultaneously invisibilized by these platforms (Myles, Duguay, and Echaiz 2022).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Myles, Duguay, and Echaiz 2022

In the paper

“Even if users are aware of the potential risks of datafication, using platform technologies becomes essential to, for example, access one's communities, to live of one's art, and to advocate for social justice causes (Robards et al. 2019;Trott 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Robards et al. 2019
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Trott 2020

In the paper

“This duality forces LGBTQ+ users to recognize surveillance directed at them and adjust their behaviour according to platforms' parameters and potential discrimination (Bishop 2023).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bishop 2023

In the paper

“Yet, users are often confronted with uncertainty about the effectiveness of their strategies, with platforms actively denying doing anything against LGBTQ+ users (Cotter 2021).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Cotter 2021

In the paper

“LGBTQ+ people are still confronted with the pressures of heteronormativity, and digital tools remain important in developing communities and identities through the formation of counterpublics that allow these users to distance themselves from the discriminatory conditions of platforms (Robards et al. 2019;Warner 2010).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Robards et al. 2019
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Warner 2010

In the paper

“Content moderation is not only applied to marginalized communities but also often targets their particular identity expressions, labelling diverging expressions as”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Haimson et al. 2021

In the paper

“On one hand, online spaces have been important for them to form public identities, create communities, and advocate for their rights.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Robards et al. 2019
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Warner 2010

In the paper

“Considering platforms' inherent goals of data accumulation and commodification, individual users are encouraged to act publicly, making them more susceptible to technological surveillance.”

In the paper

“LGBTQ+ users face a paradox: social media is crucial for identity formation, community building, and self-expression ( Robards et al. 2019), yet they encounter intensified algorithmic surveillance through content moderation tactics such as shadowbanning, demonetization, and account suspension (Are 2022; Bivens and Haimson 2016; Gillespie 2022).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Robards et al. 2019

In the paper

“Scholars of platformization have challenged our understanding of digital platforms: instead of neutral mediators, platforms are reconfiguring the operationalization of social and economic institutions (Gillespie 2018;Van Dijck, Poell, and De Waal 2018).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Gillespie 2018
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Van Dijck, Poell, and De Waal 2018

In the paper

“This situation exposes end users to greater oversight from social media platforms: private companies define”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Tiidenberg and van der Nagel 2020
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Gillespie 2018

In the paper

“For LGBTQ+ users, social media has been known to reinforce gender binaries and to conflate queer content as”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bivens and Haimson 2016 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Southerton et al. 2021

In the paper

“For Ariadna Matamoroz-Fernandez (2017), platforms are amplifying discriminatory structures by allowing biased user-generated content to circulate without moderation; this is perpetuated by algorithms that favour engagement through controversies and divisive opinions and vague policies about what content is allowed or not.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Matamoroz-Fernandez 2017

In the paper

“Navigating discriminatory but also vague platform regulations is frustrating for LGBTQ+ users, who feel like they have to increasingly adopt public personas akin to influencers for their content to be seen (Bishop 2023).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bishop 2023

In the paper

“These issues are likely to be exacerbated in light of the second Trump Administration, which has seen an increase in the targeting and marginalization of queer users, specifically trans and gender non-conforming individuals.”

In the paper

“Katrin Tiidenberg and Emily van der Nagel (2020) have noted that, although users heavily use digital technologies for sexual activities, these activities largely remain deplatformed and regulated against.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Tiidenberg and van der Nagel 2020

In the paper

“Overall, in a context in which the rationale for content moderation decisions is poorly communicated (Steen, Yurechko, and Klug 2023), LGBTQ+ users have to rely on their own knowledge.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Steen, Yurechko, and Klug 2023 source

In the paper

“Content moderation, particularly when applied in a strict and one-size-fits-all manner, allows LGBTQ+ content to be read as”

In the paper

“Digital tools have been central in allowing these users to advocate for their rights and to reclaim agency in addressing structural discrimination.”

In the paper

“Moderation is often associated with content deletion or account suspension, but scholars have shown how it encompasses a range of practices, such as age restrictions, automated warnings before accessing certain content, and demonetization of specific content (Gillespie 2022;Goldman 2021).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Gillespie 2022
• Not checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  cites Goldman 2021 source

In the paper

“Private companies, which control platform technologies without substantial oversight, have more leverage than other actors, but it is not solely in their hands.”

In the paper

“Although this framework clearly states that certain communities sustain a larger burden of datafication, it lacks a proper engagement with how they encounter these issues and form their vernacular understandings.”

In the paper

“In this sense, this article is contributing to recent scholarship that urges us to consider users' perspectives in data justice discourses: they are key actors in understanding what could or should be done about datafication (Büchi et al. 2023).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Büchi et al. 2023

In the paper

“Digital surveillance is a continuation of existing discriminatory structures and works to push queer content to the margins.”

In the paper

“For Taylor (2017), data justice revolves around three pillars: visibility, digital (dis)engagement, and countering data-driven discrimination.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Taylor 2017 source

In the paper

“This also speaks to the fact that this experience is widely shared among queer users and becomes expected (I personally received a message from Instagram that my call for participants could not be shared via marketing tools because my project was deemed as "political").”

In the paper

“However, for queer users, being carefree on social media is not an option and being able to operate on those sites cannot be taken for granted.”

In the paper

“LGBTQ+ users thus have no other choice but to acknowledge how they are being surveilled and to find ways to circumvent that surveillance in order to continue operating on social media platforms.”

In the paper

“Rather, because data justice encompasses broader social justice concerns, it is invested in structural injustices that have allowed for these technologies to evolve in the first place (Dencik and Sanchez-Monedero 2022).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  cites Dencik and Sanchez-Monedero 2022 source

In the paper

“Linnet Taylor (2017) advocates for a data justice framework acknowledging that, while there is a rapid development of data processing technologies, there is a lack of considerations of how datafication plays into broader social justice issues.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Taylor 2017 source

In the paper

“Letting go, or keeping your distance from the situation, is also the basis upon which participants can think about alternatives: when they need to move, they will be ready.”

In the paper

“For marginalized users, as they are particularly impacted by these processes, there is no other option than to acknowledge datafication mechanisms and find ways to circumvent the challenges these mechanisms create.”

In the paper

“Data justice identifies potential sites for us to challenge and resist datafication but overlooks the resistance that is already happening and, most importantly, is mandatory for some.”

In the paper

“It stresses the importance of developing individual freedoms in relation to how data are used and collected and advocates for enhanced autonomy and agency: people should be able to decide whether they want to participate in this system.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Taylor 2017 source

In the paper

“This creates a regime of visibility that heightens the scrutiny of queer communities, which greatly impacts their possible evolution within counterpublic spaces operating outside of the cisheternormative system (Haimson et al. 2021;Mayworm, Albert, and Haimson 2024;Monea 2022).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Haimson et al. 2021
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayworm, Albert, and Haimson 2024 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Monea 2022

In the paper

“Refusing to accept platforms' conditions acknowledges the incompatibility of queer forms of expression within the contemporary surveillance system and safeguards the inherently queer nature of digital LGBTQ+ expressions.”

In the paper

“Being seen by platforms is thus interpreted by LGBTQ+ users as a mechanism to push queer content to the margins in favour of heteronormative content.This surveillance is experienced as a new mechanism for the marginalization of queer people.”

In the paper

“Identifying these limits is productive in pushing against regulations that hinder LGBTQ+ expressions and is a form of resistance against the surveillance of queer content.”

In the paper

“Data justice is thus providing us with key sites on which to act to address the impacts of datafication, while also considering how these solutions should be implemented by a variety of actors on different levels.”

In the paper

“Indeed, Seeta Peña Gangadharan and Jędrzej Niklas (2019: 885) rightly state that "algorithmic discrimination and exclusionary automated systems represent one element of a larger ecosystem of discriminatory practices and procedures, and any diagnosis of problems or prescription for remedies would benefit from some measure of reflexivity in relation to this ecosystem."”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Gangadharan and Niklas 2019

In the paper

“These pillars allow us to study the impacts of datafication on privacy and representation concerns, autonomy in relation to participation in the data-driven ecosystem, and our ability to address discrimination and biases embedded in data systems.”

In the paper

“Having to acknowledge this surveillance and to navigate it through their own knowledge reiterates the idea that technological innovations are not made for people on the margins, and so a more proactive stance towards them is necessary to be able to benefit from them in the same way as the majority does.”

In the paper

“Considering this particular position of LGBTQ+ people regarding technologies, the stakes of surveillance are particularly high.”

In the paper

“While data justice is an important tool to identify pathways to navigate our datafied world, it adopts mostly a future-oriented stance, which often overlooks existing forms of resistance enacted by specific communities that have no other choice but to challenge datafication and surveillance mechanisms.”

In the paper

“Therefore, for LGBTQ+ users, acknowledging and addressing surveillance becomes mandatory, as it is virtually impossible to step out of this regime.”

In the paper

“As such, after taking notice of this surveillance and piecing together through their own understandings how they are being seen by platforms, LGBTQ+ users are increasingly aware of how seemingly benign social media features can potentially be used to target and surveil them, while other users do not have to actively think about this.”

In the paper

“In a regime of surveillance capitalism, "default publicness" (Cho 2018) becomes a precondition for social media usage: as platforms need to continuously extract data about its users, anonymity becomes counterproductive.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Cho 2018

In the paper

“Moreover, surveillance has material repercussions for marginalized users by deepening invisibilization.”

In the paper

“Moreover, platform understandings and experimentation require constant adaptability, as platforms often change their rules without any possible oversight from their users (DeVito 2021).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites DeVito 2021

In the paper

“The study compares two cities with rich queer histories, Montréal and Berlin, which are both important hubs for queer sociality ("Club Culture Berlin" 2019; Podmore 2021).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites "Club Culture Berlin" 2019
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Podmore 2021

In the paper

“Data justice frameworks are particularly invested in understanding the impacts, both negative and positive, of datafication and identifying ways to address them.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Taylor 2017 source

In the paper

“Resistance to surveillance is not aspirational, it is ongoing.”

In the paper

“This work is necessary and is inspirational at times, but it is taxing and is difficult to sustain by communities that are continuously being marginalized.”

In the paper

“They would like to have an option to resist or not, but since their position on digital technologies is so fragile, this choice is not available for them.”

In the paper

“Yet, this work is difficult and not evenly distributed among all the actors implicated.”

In the paper

“I personally find that one important contribution has been to put together these strategies that were being performed in isolation”

In the paper

“LGBTQ+ users do not have the "luxury" of being carefree online, as they feel constantly monitored.”