Cited by 608Musculoskeletal pain and rehabilitationSpine and Intervertebral Disc PathologyPregnancy-related medical research

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Interventions for the Management of Acute and Chronic Low Back Pain: Revision 2021: Clinical Practice Guidelines Linked to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health From the Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy of the American Physical Therapy Association

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George, Steven Z., Fritz, Julie M., Silfies, Sheri P., Schneider, Michael J., Beneciuk, Jason M., Lentz, Trevor A., Gilliam, John R., Hendren, Stephanie, Norman, Katherine S.·2021·Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy

DOI 10.2519/jospt.2021.0304PMC PMC10508241

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Abstract

Low back pain (LBP) remains a musculoskeletal condition with an adverse societal impact. Globally, LBP is highly prevalent and a leading cause of disability. This is an update to the 2012 Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy (AOPT), formerly the Orthopaedic Section of the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), clinical practice guideline (CPG) for LBP. The overall objective of this update was to provide recommendations on interventions delivered by physical therapists or studied in care settings that included physical therapy providers. It also focused on synthesizing new evidence, with the purpose of making recommendations for specific nonpharmacologic treatments. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2021;51(11):CPG1–CPG60. doi:10.2519/jospt.2021.0304

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Back, C. G. N., Peron, R., Lopes, C. V. R., de Souza, J. V. E., & Liebano, R. E. (2024) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/02692155241251844 · Cited by 6
Lumbar spine fusion surgery versus best conservative care for patients with severe, persistent low back pain
Bada, E., Gardner, A. C., Ahuja, S., Beard, D. J., Window, P., & Foster, N. E. (2024) · Bone & Joint Open · doi:10.1302/2633-1462.57.bjo-2023-0147.r1 · Cited by 6
“Case Vignette 2 is a 49-year-old male surgeon with a BMI of 23 kg/m 2 .”
BackgroundInfluential
Sensory Profiles Predict Symptoms of Central Sensitization in Low Back Pain: A Predictive Model Research Study
Gräper, P. J., Scafoglieri, A., Clark, J. R., & Hallegraeff, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13164677 · Cited by 7
“…pain, neuroscience education may be the management of choice based on sensory preferences, expressed as Sensory Profiles that align with clinical practice guidelines for LBP, which emphasize the importance of cognitive behavioral therapy principles and behavioral interventions [1,19,52].”
Background
Nonspecific low back pain in sedentary workers: A narrative review
Swathi, S., Senthil, P., & Shazia Neelam, N. (2022) · Biomedicine · doi:10.51248/.v42i5.1484 · Cited by 6
“Both the treatment techniques had integrated support for short-term effectiveness and clinical practice guidelines mention these therapeutic approaches only when they are provided as a part of the multi-modal package (30).”
Background
Strategies to facilitate and tools to measure non-specific low back pain patients‘ adherence to physiotherapy - A two-stage systematic review
Alt, A., Luomajoki, H. A., & Lüdtke, K. (2023) · Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies · doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2023.04.060 · Cited by 6
Telehealth delivery of physical therapist-led interventions for persons with chronic low back pain in underserved communities: lessons from pragmatic clinical trials
Fritz, J. M., Ford, I., George, S. Z., de Vanegas, L. V., Cope, T. L., Burke, C. A., & Goode, A. P. (2024) · Frontiers in Pain Research · doi:10.3389/fpain.2024.1324096 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Preventing chronic low back pain: investigating the role of Pilates in subacute management—a randomized controlled trial
Aşık, H. K., & Şahbaz, T. (2025) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-025-03939-y · Cited by 5
“These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that Pilates-based interventions effectively enhance core stability, postural control, and neuromuscular coordination in individuals with LBP [21, 26, 27].”
Effectiveness of an app-delivered, self-management exercise program in public safety workers with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial
Marins, E. F., Primo, T. T., Vasconcelos, B. B., Carvalho, M. T. X., Oppelt, L. D. L., Pinheiro, V. H. G., Scaglioni, F., Maraschin, D. A., Junior, V. D. A. R., Caputo, E. L., et al. (2025) · Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.bjpt.2025.101232 · Cited by 7
Plasma Pro‐ and Anti‐Inflammatory Cytokines in an Observational Chronic Low Back Pain Cohort
Enrico, V. T., Anderst, W. J., Bell, K. M., Coelho, J. P., Darwin, J., Delitto, A., Greco, C. M., Lee, J. Y., McKernan, G., Patterson, C. G., et al. (2025) · JOR Spine · doi:10.1002/jsp2.70095 · Cited by 5
“The experience of back pain profoundly influences people on multiple dimensions, from cellular processes [1–4] to the broader spectrum of systemic dysfunctions, impacting physical and mental health [5–12] and social relationships [13–16].”
Self-citation
The effect of positive, neutral, and negative expectations about spinal manipulative therapy on pain intensity in chronic low back pain: A randomized controlled trial
Campanha, B. E. S., de Lima, T. C., Nogueira, H. C., George, S. Z., Reis, F. J. J., & Chaves, T. C. (2025) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2025.106177 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Mézières Method as a practice of embodiment in patients with low back pain: a mixed study
Alfonso-Mora, M. L., Guerra-Balic, M., Martín, R. S., Pedraza, Z., Ramírez-Moreno, J., Garrido, A. L. C., Zambrano-Cristancho, L. K., & Rengifo-Varona, M. L. (2023) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2023.2265379 · Cited by 5
“…similar to MM, do not generate an important effect in QOl in lBP patients, but the participants acquired relevant benefits in pain and disability [32]. a systematic review found that QOl improved with moderate to high intensity exercise interventions. the exercise interventions in both groups…”
Background
Spinal mobilization force-time characteristics: A scoping literature review
Gorrell, L. M., Nyirö, L., Pasquier, M., Pagé, I., Heneghan, N. R., Schweinhardt, P., & Descarreaux, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0289462 · Cited by 5
“Clinical practice guidelines recommend the use of conservative treatments including spinal mobilization (SMob) and/or spinal manipulation (SM) for the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders [18–21].”
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Combined with Sling Exercise Modulates the Motor Cortex in Patients with Chronic Low Back Pain
Li, X., Lu, S., Ge, L., Li, Z., Chen, R., Zu, Y., Fu, R., Li, L., & Wang, C. (2024) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.03.011 · Cited by 5
The Influence of Active, Passive, and Manual Therapy Interventions on Escalation of Health Care Events After Physical Therapist Care in Veterans With Low Back Pain
Mayer, J. M., Highsmith, M. J., Maikos, J. T., Patterson, C. G., Kakyomya, J., Smith, B., Shenoy, N., Dearth, C. L., & Farrokhi, S. (2024) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.1093/ptj/pzae101 · Cited by 5
Does spinal pain management account for the presence of other health conditions? – A scoping review
Gandløse, J. S., Tróndarson, T. F., Vela, J., Westermann, R., Dreyer, L., Skou, S. T., & Palsson, T. S. (2024) · European Journal of Physiotherapy · doi:10.1080/21679169.2024.2393127 · Cited by 5
“[72] usa Emphasizes a need for more knowledge about the importance of comorbidities for the effect of training [73] usa this guideline has a heading called ‘patients with Co-occurring Conditions’. it encourages providers to use a patient-centered, whole/holistic health approach which aims to treat…”
Association between seated trunk control and cortical sensorimotor white matter brain changes in patients with chronic low back pain
Gilliam, J. R., Sahu, P. K., Vendemia, J. M. C., & Silfies, S. P. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0309344 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
The Oswestry Disability Index is not a good measure for low back pain in adolescents: A Rasch analysis of data from 200 people
Selhorst, M., Degenhart, T., Jackowski, M., Meyer, S., & Rospert, A. (2024) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/02692155241296802 · Cited by 5
“14 The psychometric properties of the modi ﬁ ed Oswestry have previously been evaluated through Rasch analysis in adults with low back pain.”
Occupational therapy‐based rehabilitation of sciatic nerve pain
Thakur, S., Kumar, A., Dijkstra, A., & Thakur, A. (2024) · Brain‐X · doi:10.1002/brx2.70010 · Cited by 5
“[19] These interventions can take the form of physical therapy exercises, massage, and postural alignments such as yoga poses.”
Tai Chi Quan Versus Physical Therapy on Pain and Cognitive Performance for Elderly People With Chronic Low Back Pain: Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial
Wang, R., Zhu, D. H., Wang, L., Liu, J., Zou, J., Sun, Y., Jiang, Y., Hu, H., Deng, Z.-W., Weng, L., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.900430 · Cited by 5
Spinal manipulation and adverse event reporting in the pregnant patient limits estimation of relative risk: a narrative review
Stickler, K., & Kearns, G. A. (2022) · Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy · doi:10.1080/10669817.2022.2118653 · Cited by 5
“The clinical practice guidelines endorsed by the Orthopedic Section of the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) for the management of acute and chronic low back pain recommend both thrust and non-thrust joint mobilization [12].”
Method
“Self-Healing”: A Novel and Integrated Multimodal Concept for the Management of Musculoskeletal Pain
Mobasheri, A. (2022) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s386508 · Cited by 5
“MSK conditions are the leading contributor to disability worldwide, with low back pain (LBP) and osteoarthritis (OA) being the leading causes of physical disability globally, with a prevalence of 700 million and 500 million people, respectively.(3,4) Ageing, demographic change and the ever increasing global population…”
Background
Effects of osteopathic manipulative treatment associated with pain education and clinical hypnosis in individuals with chronic low back pain: study protocol for a randomized sham-controlled clinical trial
Luchesi, G. L. S., da Silva, A. K. F., Amaral, O. H. B., de Paula, V. C. G., & Jassi, F. J. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-07040-y · Cited by 43
“Finally, manual therapy can also compose the treatment of this individual, since it allows improvement in movement and spinal stiffness in patients with CLBP [7].”
Method
Analysis of Postural Stability Following the Application of Myofascial Release Techniques for Low Back Pain—A Randomized-Controlled Trial
Ożóg, P., Weber-Rajek, M., Radzimińska, A., & Goch, A. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20032198 · Cited by 8
Evaluation of an electronic clinical decision support system (DeSSBack) to improve low back pain management: a pilot cluster randomized controlled trial
Malik, T. F. A., Teo, C. H., Teh, S. Y., Su, J. Y., Zaini, H. S. M., Suhaimi, A., Ng, W. L., Danaee, M., Stevenson, K., Mallen, C. D., et al. (2023) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cmad044 · Cited by 5
Is there ‘trustworthy’ evidence for using manual therapy to treat patients with shoulder dysfunction?: A systematic review
Flowers, D. W., Swanson, B. T., Shaffer, S. M., Clewley, D. J., & Riley, S. P. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0297234 · Cited by 5
Implementation of a Virtual Reality Intervention in Outpatient Physiotherapy for Chronic Pain: Protocol for a Pilot Implementation Study
Elser, A., Kopkow, C., & Schäfer, A. G. M. (2024) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/58089 · Cited by 8
“Although evidence-based treatments and guidelines for the management of chronic pain are available [14-16], they are only partially used [17,18].”
Background
The Arabic Oswestry Disability Index as a Unidimensional Measure
Alnahdi, A. H. (2024) · Spine · doi:10.1097/brs.0000000000005223 · Cited by 5
Does online clinical mentoring for physical therapists enhance clinical practice and patient outcomes? A randomized controlled trial
Leahy, E. S., Chipchase, L. S., Cavaleri, R., & Blackstock, F. C. (2025) · Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy · doi:10.1080/10669817.2025.2481605 · Cited by 5
“The control group watched six prerecorded online lectures (1 h each, one per week) and completed 4 h of self-directed reading of peer reviewed publications relating to clinical guidelines and spinal pain care [23–26].”
Sleep Disturbance in Musculoskeletal Conditions: Impact of a Digital Care Program
Scheer, J. K., Costa, F. M. T. A., Janela, D., Molinos, M., Areias, A. C., Moulder, R. G., Jr., Laíns, J., Bento, V., Yanamadala, V., & Correia, F. D. (2023) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s394421 · Cited by 5
Effect of exercise on chronic neck pain and central sensitization: A protocol for a randomized crossover trial
Chen, K. K., Hutchinson, M. R., Rolan, P. E., & de Zoete, R. M. J. (2023) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep091065 · Cited by 4
“…underlying different chronic pain conditions (Bogduk, 2011; Knezevic et al., 2021; Popescu & Lee, 2020) and different management strategies and recovery trajectories have led to different clinical guidelines for different chronic pain conditions (Blanpied et al., 2017; George et al., 2021).”
Background
Are physical therapy interventions effective in improving sleep in people with chronic pain? A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis
Calvo, S., González, C., Lapuente‐Hernández, D., Cuenca‐Zaldívar, J. N., Herrero, P., & Gil-Calvo, M. (2023) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2023.09.008 · Cited by 6
Therapeutic exercise following lumbar spine surgery: a narrative review
Haddas, R., Remis, A., Barzilay, Y., Puvanesarajah, V., Keller, J., Clifford, B. M., Lantz, J. M., & Mayer, J. M. (2025) · North American Spine Society Journal (NASSJ) · doi:10.1016/j.xnsj.2025.100620 · Cited by 8
Assessing motor control and movement quality in patients with non-specific low back pain: a scoping review and development of an ICF-based conceptual framework
Pfluegler, G., Klinger, M., Ley, C., Luedtke, K., Schüßler, B., & Sturma, A. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-091206 · Cited by 4
“16–18 A relevant issue arises from the lack of conceptual and theoretical clarity among clinicians and researchers regarding the crucial aspects of motor control and movement quality in patients with LBP, starting with the use and definition of these terms.”
The Immediate Hypoalgesic Effects of Mobilization and Manipulation in Patients with Non-Specific Chronic Low Back Pain: A Cross-Over Randomized Controlled Trial
Sampsonis, T., Karanasios, S., & Gioftsos, G. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13141719 · Cited by 4
“In an attempt to better understand these mechanisms of action, past studies have investigated the changes in the pressure pain threshold (PPT), suggesting significant changes at local, regional, and remote sites after SMT [5,12–14].”
Aquatic therapy compared to standard care for chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial
Vaillancourt, N., Montpetit, C., Rosenstein, B., & Fortin, M. (2026) · Pain Management · doi:10.1080/17581869.2026.2613633 · Cited by 5
Muscle Function Obtained with Motion Mode Ultrasound and Surface Electromyography during Core Endurance Exercise
Devorski, L., Skibski, A., & Mangum, L. C. (2022) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/64335 · Cited by 4
The relationship between kinesiophobia severity and clinical parameters in patients with mechanical low back pain
Ege, F. (2023) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/bmr-220365 · Cited by 4
“Low back pain is an important widespread health problem that can occur at any age, causing serious socioeconomic losses [1].”
On-Site Physiotherapy in Emergency Department Patients Presenting with Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Chrobok, L., Espejo, T., Riedel, H. B., Kirchberger, J., Overberg, J.-A., Felber, F., Perrot, G., Nickel, C. H., & Bingisser, R. M. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13113149 · Cited by 4
“These guidelines recommend “early” physiotherapy [7–9], and an adherence to these recommendations seem to improve pain, disability, total cost of physiotherapy [10], and a reduction in the utilization of medical resources [11].”
Background
Understanding Barriers to the Use of a Low Back Pain Clinical Practice Guideline in Physical Therapist Practice: A Mixed-Methods Approach
Schumacher, M. R., Cottone, K. A., Siviter, L. M., Rentmeester, C., Rhon, D. I., & Young, J. L. (2025) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.1093/ptj/pzaf059 · Cited by 4
Cell-Free Fat Extract for the Treatment of Lumbar Disc Degeneration: A Novel Approach Using Adipose-Derived Biologic
Xu, C., Zhou, X., Yang, C. N., Zhou, F., & Xie, Y. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13061344 · Cited by 4
“Current treatments for early IVDD primarily focus on managing symptoms through medication and rehabilitation [3,4], but they do not effectively halt or reverse degenerative changes in the disc.”
Implementation of an online pain science education for chronic musculoskeletal pain in Brazilian public health system: protocol for a hybrid type III randomised controlled trial with economic evaluation
Baroni, M. P., Hespanhol, L., Miyamoto, G. C., Daniel, C. R., Fernandes, L. G., dos Reis, F. J. J., Pate, J. W., & Saragiotto, B. T. (2023) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-023-06360-7 · Cited by 7
Impact of Indoor Air Quality and Breathing on Back and Neck Pain: A Systematic Review
Gherscovici, E., & Mayer, J. M. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.43945 · Cited by 4
“Overview: Approaches adapted from the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine, Clinical Information Access Portal [29-32], and American Physical Therapy Association [1,12] were used to handle data and synthesize evidence [8,9].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Prevalence of Low Back Pain and Its Related Risk Factors and Disability Following Lumbar Discectomy: A Single-Center Study
Mulhim, F. A. A., Alalwan, H. A., Alkhars, A. M., Almutairi, A., AlSaeed, M. N., & Althabit, F. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.49729 · Cited by 4
“It has been demonstrated that specific exercise therapy of the back muscles can significantly reduce pain and disability after disc surgery [30,31].”
Background
Physical measures of physical functioning as prognostic factors to predict outcomes in low back pain: Protocol for a systematic review
RASHED, R., Kowalski, K. L., Walton, D. M., Niazigharemakhe, A., & Rushton, A. B. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0295761 · Cited by 5
Lumbar Paravertebral Muscle Pain Management Using Kinesitherapy and Electrotherapeutic Modalities
Silişteanu, S. C., Antonescu, E., DUICA, L. C., Totan, M., Cucu, A. I., & Costea, A. I. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12080853 · Cited by 23
“Currently, exercise-based physical therapy is the primary initial treatment for musculoskeletal disorders [44,53–55] and improves sleep quality.”
Background
A Review of Clinical Practice Guidelines for Physiotherapy Management of Patients with Non-Specific Low Back Pain
Ranganathan, H., & Singh, D. K. A. (2024) · National Journal of Community Medicine · doi:10.55489/njcm.150520243849 · Cited by 4
“30 Another possible factor is time lag of approximately one (APTA, IHE, SIGN, DHA) to two (WHO, IHE, NCGDG) years between the search for research evidence and publication in many CPGs.”
Background
Does risk stratification with a matched treatment pathway improve clinical outcomes for adults with acute back pain? A systematic review and meta-analysis
Chiodo, A., & Haley, M. N. (2024) · Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.bjpt.2024.101116 · Cited by 4
An e-learning program improves low back pain beliefs of physiotherapists: a randomised trial
Magalhães, D. S., McAuley, J. H., Maher, C. G., Ferreira, É. D. M. R., Oliveira, T. D. P., Mastahinich, M. E. R., de Jesus‐Moraleida, F. R., Fukusawa, L., Franco, M. R., & Pinto, R. Z. (2024) · Journal of physiotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.jphys.2024.11.014 · Cited by 4

Authors: George, S. Z., Fritz, J. M., Silfies, S. P., Schneider, M. J., Beneciuk, J. M., Lentz, T. A., Gilliam, J. R., Hendren, S., & Norman, K. S.
ORCID: George, Steven Z.
Fritz, Julie M.
Silfies, Sheri P.
Schneider, Michael J.
Beneciuk, Jason M.
Lentz, Trevor A.
Gilliam, John R.
Hendren, Stephanie
Norman, Katherine S.
Venue: Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy
Publisher: Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy (JOSPT)
Published: 2021-11
Volume: 51
Issue: 11
Pages: CPG1-CPG60
ISSN: 0190-6011 (ISSN-L)
1938-1344
DOI: 10.2519/jospt.2021.0304
PMC: PMC10508241
OpenAlex: W3208162845
Cited by: 607
References: 171
Citations by year: 2026: 127 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 143 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 4
FWCI: 50.16
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: other-oa
Locations: Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: American Physical Therapy Association
National Institutes of Health
National Institute of General Medical Sciences (T32GM081740, T32GM145226)
Topics: Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Musculoskeletal pain and rehabilitation
Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Spine and Intervertebral Disc Pathology
Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Pregnancy-related medical research
Keywords: low back pain, acute low back pain, chronic low back pain, physical therapy intervention, non-pharmacological treatment, musculoskeletal pain, disability
MeSH terms: Humans, Low Back Pain, Physical Therapy Modalities, Chronic Pain, Physical Therapists

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Interventions for the Management of Acute and Chronic Low Back Pain: Revision 2021: Clinical Practice Guidelines Linked to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health From the Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy of the American Physical Therapy Association

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