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Interventions for the Management of Acute and Chronic Low Back Pain: Revision 2021: Clinical Practice Guidelines Linked to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health From the Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy of the American Physical Therapy Association
Open accessAbstract
Low back pain (LBP) remains a musculoskeletal condition with an adverse societal impact. Globally, LBP is highly prevalent and a leading cause of disability. This is an update to the 2012 Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy (AOPT), formerly the Orthopaedic Section of the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), clinical practice guideline (CPG) for LBP. The overall objective of this update was to provide recommendations on interventions delivered by physical therapists or studied in care settings that included physical therapy providers. It also focused on synthesizing new evidence, with the purpose of making recommendations for specific nonpharmacologic treatments. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2021;51(11):CPG1–CPG60. doi:10.2519/jospt.2021.0304
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“Clinical practice guidelines stress the importance of NBP prevention and treatment through exercise therapy (i.e., yoga, stretching, Pilates and strength training) and health education (i.e., selfmanagement techniques, pacing strategies, back protection techniques and pain neuroscience education) [3,7,8,9].”
From Prevention of non-specific back pain through exercise and education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [8]
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“This phenomenon may be due to the fact that graded exercise and patient education are key elements to reducing kinesiophobia [8].”
From Prevention of non-specific back pain through exercise and education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [8]
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“and in terms of educational interventions, all of them followed the recommendations of the main clinical guidelines [7,8].”
From Prevention of non-specific back pain through exercise and education: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [8]
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Self-citationOptimizing normalization methods of the external oblique: A cross-sectional study
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“[1,2,4–7, 20] Current best The primary purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions and utilization of STM techniques of physical therapists who treat patients with LBP in the State of Minnesota.”
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Bibliometric analysis of research on manual therapy for low back pain from 2013 to 2023
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“[1,2] It affected 619 million people worldwide in 2020, and the number of cases is projected to rise to 843 million by 2050, primarily due to population growth and aging.”
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“…a specific pathoanatomic etiology and are considered mechanical in nature, which means that manually delivered forces to the joints and soft tissues of the spine are helpful for establishing treatment-based diagnoses and informing selection of appropriate manual therapy interventions [1–3 ,11].”
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“Therefore, multimodal approaches were developed with promising results [13].”
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“29 87 Additional support for the impact of TA in physical therapy practice is provided by TA as a predictor of functional outcomes and a consistent relationship among patient and physical therapist factors with TA specifically observed in a cohort of individuals with LBP. 20 88 The impact of TA may be particularly rel…”
InfluentialSelf-citationSchumacher, M. R., Kovash, D. T., Forkin, K. T., & Bylund, D. B. (2025) · Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy · doi:10.1080/10669817.2025.2539783 · Cited by 2
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Thurnherr, N., Schweinhardt, P., & Gorrell, L. M. (2025) · Chiropractic & Manual Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12998-025-00619-7 · Cited by 2
“Although there seems to be no difference between the clinical benefits of MOB or MAN [4, 6, 10, 11], there are bio-mechanical differences.”
Cioeta, M., Giannotta, G., Carbotti, D., Cicinelli, D., Giovinazzi, R., Dell’Anna, A., Germani, A., Balestra, F., Giovannico, G., Mourad, F., et al. (2025) · Musculoskeletal Science and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2025.103477 · Cited by 2
하다솜, Jung, J., & Lee, S. (2026) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000046971 · Cited by 3
“The home exercise program followed the guidelines of Geroge et al, [33] including MFR and Pilates Reformer exercises, along with stretching exercises beneficial for CLBP. Home exercises were conducted 3 times a week for 15 minutes, and the exercise materials were distributed (Table S3, Supplemental…”
Hadjisavvas, S., Themistocleous, I.-C., Efstathiou, M. A., Papamichael, E., Michailidou, C., & Stefanakis, M. (2026) · Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · doi:10.3390/jfmk11010059 · Cited by 2
“In addition to mechanical impacts, modern models suggest that manual therapy may influence neurophysiological responses by modulating peripheral afferent input and sensorimotor integration [15,16].”
Fan, C., Zhang, Q., Lei, X., Ma, B., Li, B., Yang, J., Li, Y., Wan, K., Lu, L., Zhang, S., et al. (2026) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-026-03105-0 · Cited by 2
“However, current clinical guidelines for CLBP lack specific recommendations regarding which types of telerehabilitation methods should be implemented in practice [21, 22].”
Effectiveness of Nonpharmacologic Treatments for Chronic Low Back Pain
Fritz, J. M., Skolasky, R. L., Brennan, G. P., Minick, K. I., Wegener, S. T., Lane, E., Garland, E. L., Aaron, R. V., Bardsley, T. R., Fino, N. F., et al. (2026) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/annals-25-04645 · Cited by 3
Self-citationPerspectives on Pain: A Narrative Review of Pain Beliefs, Coping, and Clinical Implications
Pugh, C., Snoddy, K., Boyett, R., Bakir, H., Cawley, D., & Piscura, M. K. (2026) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s603074 · Cited by 2
“160–162 Older adults’ willingness to engage in such programs is also shaped by beliefs, with negative or fatalistic views reducing adherence.”
Heatwrap and exercise in acute low back pain: a multi-arm randomised controlled trial
Côté‐Picard, C., Tittley, J., Mailloux, C., Desgagnés, A., Perreault, K., Mercier, C., Dionne, C. E., Roy, J., & Massé‐Alarie, H. (2026) · Musculoskeletal Science and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2026.103587 · Cited by 2
Brønfort, G., Meier, E. N., Leininger, B. D., Schneider, M. J., Evans, R., Greco, C. M., Hanson, L., McFarland, C. E., Chou, R., Connett, J., et al. (2026) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2026.1893 · Cited by 2
Self-citationSaif, H. A., O’Neill, T. W., Callaghan, M. J., & Goodwin, P. C. (2022) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-022-05346-1 · Cited by 2
“APTA Guidelines refer to education as ‘postoperative precautions, exercise, and resuming physical activity’ [8].”
BackgroundInfluentialLouw, A., Farrell, K. P., Nielsen, A., O’Malley, M., Cox, T., & Puentedura, E. J. (2022) · Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy · doi:10.1080/10669817.2022.2092822 · Cited by 2
“for an estimated 25–40% of outpatient physical therapy visits [1,2].”
BackgroundKosakowski, H., Rone-Adams, S. A., Boissonnault, W. G., Harmon-Matthews, L. E., Kuczynski, J. J., Martin, M., & Briggs, M. S. (2022) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2022.2160940 · Cited by 2
“Key updates in the 2021 version of the CPG include targeted interventions for subgroups of patients classified as having acute or chronic LBP (George et al., 2021).”
BackgroundRundumblick – Untersuchung der HWS
Luomajoki, H. A. (2023) · physiopraxis · doi:10.1055/a-1953-4779 · Cited by 2
Leonel, F. J. F., de Paula, L., Ferreira, G. C. R., do Nascimento, D. M. D. R., Zotz, T. G. G., de Melo, J. A., & de Macedo, A. C. B. (2023) · Pain Management · doi:10.2217/pmt-2022-0079 · Cited by 2
Wingood, M., Vincenzo, J. L., & Gell, N. (2023) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2023.2274385 · Cited by 2
“…guidelines for managing chronic low back pain (CLBP) recommend participating in physical activity, defined as any movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure (Abenhaim et al., 2000; George et al., 2021; Hurwitz, Morgenstern, and Chiao, 2005; Oliveira et al., 2018).”
Odzimek, M., Brola, W., & Opara, J. A. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11233062 · Cited by 2
“Studies confirm the positive impact of such exercises not only on reducing pain but also on the mental health of patients [18,37].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialdos Passos, M. H. P., Picón, S. P. B., Batista, G. D. A., Nascimento, V. Y. S., Oliveira, F. A. D. S., Locks, F., Pitangui, A. C. R., & de Araújo, R. C. (2023) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/bmr-230201 · Cited by 3
“In addition, the recent American Physical Therapy Association Clinical Practice Guidelines for low back pain strongly recommend using physical training interventions to treat chronic low back pain [24].”
Muller, R. D., Cooper, J. C., Gliedt, J. A., & Pohlman, K. A. (2024) · Chiropractic & Manual Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12998-024-00530-7 · Cited by 2
“Current CPGs highlight the importance of encouraging early return to normal daily activities and work-related tasks for patients experiencing back pain [27, 35, 36].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZhang, Y.-H., Peng, M., Wang, R., Wang, Y.-Z., Chen, C.-C., Wang, J., Zheng, Y.-L., Xu, H.-R., Chen, P., & Wang, X.-Q. (2024) · European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.23736/s1973-9087.24.08033-x · Cited by 2
Fiedler, A. M., Piedade, G. S., de Mônaco, B. A., Taylor, R. R., Williams, M. D., John, D. L., Minor, A., & Cordeiro, J. G. (2024) · Acta Neurologica Belgica · doi:10.1007/s13760-024-02575-0 · Cited by 2
“With up to half of lumbar surgery patients potentially being affected and current interventions only providing transient relief [5, 6], there is an urgent call for innovative neuromodulation strategies.”
Physical therapy for survivors of torture: A scoping review
Dee, J. M., Gell, N., van Eeghen, C., & Littenberg, B. (2024) · Torture Journal · doi:10.7146/torture.v34i1.138985 · Cited by 2
“(George et al., 2021; Main & George, 2011) Trauma-informed care fosters trust, stability, safety, and recognizes the individual’s trauma experience.”
BackgroundSelf‐acknowledged limitations in exercise therapy trials for low back pain
Siviter, L. M., Morretta, M., Petosky, T., Klopper, M., Rhon, D. I., & Young, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.14033 · Cited by 2
Arribas‐Romano, A., Fernández‐Carnero, J., Rodríguez‐Lagos, L., Álvarez, M. M., Zabala-Zambrano, J., Lezaun-Hernández, L., Contreras-Padilla, L., & Mercado, F. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13133648 · Cited by 2
Porollan, J. C., Graef, C. M., Bouzat, P., de Ilzarbe, M. G., de Farias, K. L. M., Steinberg, D. E., Salzberg, S., Aponte, B. G., Fabani, F. J., & Oyola, M. (2024) · Argentinian Journal of Respiratory & Physical Therapy · doi:10.58172/ajrpt.v6i2.312 · Cited by 2
French, M. A., Hartman, P., Hayes, H., Ling, L., Magel, J. S., & Thackeray, A. (2024) · Applied Clinical Informatics · doi:10.1055/a-2401-3688 · Cited by 2
“…assessment is not mapped into the OMOP CDM. Similarly, the Fear Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire is recommended with strong evidence in three CPGs 45,48,69 and with weak evidence in one other CPG. 32 Further, fear avoidance is known to signi fi cantly affect the quality of life and function,…”
InfluentialMonroe, K. S., Archer, K. R., Wegener, S. T., Dionicio, P., Arredondo, E. M., Ayala, G. X., Rodriguez, C., Dyke, J. V., Liu, J., & Gombatto, S. P. (2024) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2024.104685 · Cited by 2
Aljallad, Y. A., Moustafa, I. M., Badr, M., Hamza, N. A. E., Oakley, P. A., & Harrison, D. E. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40613 · Cited by 2
Kirker, K., Masaracchio, M. F., Dewan, B. M., O’Connell, M., & Young, B. A. (2025) · Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy · doi:10.1080/10669817.2025.2449977 · Cited by 2
“Participant responses to each clinical vignette were graded separately based on the outlined decision trees in the CPGs [16,18] using the following methodology and dichotomized into adherence versus non-adherence.”
InfluentialKirker, K., Masaracchio, M. F., States, R. A., & Young, J. L. (2025) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2025.2471398 · Cited by 4
“…et al., 2017; Domingues et al., 2019; Espí-López, Arnal-Gómez, Balasch-Bernat, and Inglés, 2017; Falsiroli Maistrello, Rafanelli, and Turolla, 2019; George et al., 2021; Gutiérrez-Espinoza et al., 2022; Hidalgo et al., 2018; Miller et al., 2010; Noten et al., 2016; Pieters et al., 2020; Salamh,…”
Back pain in the midwifery profession in northern Poland
Bryndal, A., Głowiński, S., Hebel, K., & Grochulska, A. (2025) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.19079 · Cited by 2
“In patients who experience acute LBP and present to a doctor, the complaints resolve in 70–90% of cases ( Popescu & Lee, 2020 ; George et al., 2021 ).”
InfluentialConfidence in providing primary care to patients with low back pain among physiotherapists
Shavit, R., Kushnir, T., Nudelman, Y., Weisman, A., & Springer, S. (2025) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-025-02850-w · Cited by 2
Vaillant, J., Gairola, R., Merlin, J. S., Trivedi, A. N., Shireman, T. I., & Dow, P. M. (2025) · Medical Care Research and Review · doi:10.1177/10775587251339917 · Cited by 2
“…first line of management for various types of pain, including aLBP, because of their effectiveness and potential to mitigate morbidity and mortality associated with prescription opioids (J. Cheng et al., 2020; Dowell et al., 2022; George et al., 2021; Qaseem et al., 2017; Sandbrink et al., 2023).”
Zapata, K. A., Ramo, B. A., Jo, C., & Petrasic, J. (2025) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.1093/ptj/pzaf106 · Cited by 2
Dewi, Y., Pramesti, R. S. A., Armita, D., & Sudaryanto, W. T. (2022) · Jurnal Pengabdian Masyarakat · doi:10.30640/abdimas45.v1i2.318 · Cited by 2
Zhang, H., Song, Y., Yang, Y., Gao, Z., Song, Z., & Wang, W. (2023) · Stem Cells International · doi:10.1155/2023/8103595 · Cited by 2
RetractedPepin, M.-E., Astronomo, R., Brown, A., & Fritz, N. E. (2023) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2023.2229902 · Cited by 2
“Well into the start of the study, the 2021 update to the CPG was published (George et al., 2021).”
Lee, J., & Lee, Y. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11233023 · Cited by 2
Beneciuk, J. M., George, S. Z., Simon, C. B., Ballengee, L. A., Lentz, T. A., Greco, C. M., Main, C. J., & Keefe, F. J. (2024) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.1093/ptj/pzae002 · Cited by 2
Self-citationOrthopaedic manual physical therapy: it’s not what you do, it’s how you do it
Shepherd, M. H., Silvernail, J. L., Adderley, T., & Lonnemann, E. (2026) · Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy · doi:10.1080/10669817.2026.2621131 · Cited by 2
“Guidelines support MT for musculoskeletal conditions, yet it faces criticism for limited effectiveness and unclear mechanisms [1,2].”
Perfil da dor lombar em trabalhadores dos restaurantes de uma universidade pública do sul do Brasil
Lima, F. V., Dias, L. G., Bette, P. A. B., Motter, A. A., de Macedo, A. C. B., & Zotz, T. G. G. (2022) · O Mundo da Saúde · doi:10.15343/0104-7809.202246483492p · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- George, S. Z., Fritz, J. M., Silfies, S. P., Schneider, M. J., Beneciuk, J. M., Lentz, T. A., Gilliam, J. R., Hendren, S., & Norman, K. S.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy
- Published
- 2021-11
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- CPG1-CPG60
- ISSN
- 0190-6011 (ISSN-L)
- 1938-1344
- PMC
- PMC10508241
- OpenAlex
- W3208162845
- Cited by
- 607
- References
- 171
- Citations by year
- 2026: 127 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 143 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 4
- FWCI
- 50.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- American Physical Therapy Association
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (T32GM081740, T32GM145226)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Musculoskeletal pain and rehabilitation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Spine and Intervertebral Disc Pathology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Pregnancy-related medical research
- Keywords
- low back pain, acute low back pain, chronic low back pain, physical therapy intervention, non-pharmacological treatment, musculoskeletal pain, disability
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Low Back Pain, Physical Therapy Modalities, Chronic Pain, Physical Therapists
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