The effects of different environmental conditions on thermoregulation and clinical and hematological variables in long-distance road-transported calves1
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of long-distance road transport (19 h, from Poland to Italy) during 2 seasons (summer vs. winter) on clinical and hematological variables in calves. The environmental temperature range that could compromise the thermoregulation system (thermal stress) of the calves was tested. For the 7 Holstein calves in each transport, the BW and rectal temperature (RT) were measured, and blood samples were collected at the farm of origin, before loading at the transit center (T2), after unloading at the farm of destination (T3), and 1, 2, 3, and 4 d after arrival. The body temperature (BT) and heart rate (HR) were continuously monitored from T2 to T3. The data were statistically analyzed according to a mixed model that considered the fixed effects of transport (repeated measurements), season of journey, and their interaction. Within the observed temperature-humidity index (THI) range (30 to 80), effective thermoregulation allowed the calves to maintain their BT with small physiologic changes to prevent thermal stress, particularly in the summer. With no seasonal differences, the HR was greater at loading than unloading (120 vs. 115 beats per min; P = 0.012). As for the transport effect, the BW was less (P < 0.001) after unloading, and the RT was greater (P = 0.004). This effect was more marked in summer. The hematological variables indicated a moderate effect of transport on the hydration condition, reactive and muscular systems, and metabolism, although hematocrit (P = 0.004), erythrocytes, cortisol, NEFA, β-hydroxybutyrate, lactate, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and aspartate aminotransferase activity (P < 0.001), and total protein (P = 0.007) were greater after unloading. This was confirmed by a moderate decrease in total leukocytes (P = 0.031) and glucose concentration (P = 0.002). The changes in the clinical variables were similar for both seasons even though in the summer, hematocrit (P < 0.001), urea (P = 0.008), and total protein (P = 0.010) increased and glucose concentration (P = 0.038) decreased. In conclusion, the data did not show a pronounced effect attributable to the season of the journey. Long-distance road transport leads to notable changes in clinical and hematological variables at the end of the journey. However, these variables remained within their physiological ranges and returned to basal values within a few days after the journey.
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The impact of altered physiological status and health of calves during and after transport is triggered by a combination of factors including reduced feed and water intake, increased physiological and physical stressors, muscle fatigue and immunosuppression.
“The impact of altered physiological status and health of calves during and after transport has been well documented and has been shown to be triggered by a combination of factors including a reduction in feed and water intake, and increased physiological and physical stressors, muscle fatigue and immunosuppression [3–9].”
From Observational study: effect of varying transport durations and feed withdrawal on the physiological status and health of dairy calves (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
Indicators of dehydration such as blood urea and lactate display more variability and may gradually return to normal levels over a span of one to five weeks post-arrival.
“However, indicators of dehydration such as blood urea and lactate display more variability and may gradually return to normal levels over a span of one to five weeks post-arrival [4, 11].”
From Observational study: effect of varying transport durations and feed withdrawal on the physiological status and health of dairy calves (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
Transport of 18-20 h has been shown to negatively alter hematology and biochemistry.
“Transport (18–20 h) has been shown to negatively alter hematology (16) and biochemistry (11), and even short transport (2h) was shown to increase cortisol levels (17).”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
These results reinforce conclusions drawn from previously published research data for calves transported over land for short and long durations, although these studies did not include a combination of ferry and lorry transport.
“Regardless, these results reinforce conclusions drawn from previously published research data for calves transported over land for short and long durations (11, 16, 27), although these studies did not include a combination of ferry and lorry transport.”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
Higher levels of plasma cortisol, NEFA, urea, BHB, packed cell volume, neutrophils, basophils, and total white blood cell numbers are commonly found in calves upon arrival at the veal farm compared with pretransport values.
“Higher levels of plasma cortisol, nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), urea, BHB, packed cell volume, neutrophils, basophils, and total white blood cell numbers are commonly found in calves upon arrival at the veal farm (Knowles et al., 1997”
From Effects of pretransport diet, transport duration, and type of vehicle on physiological status of young veal calves. (2020) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
Electrolytes and total protein have been shown to increase in response to long-distance transport, although not all previous research found differences in potassium, sodium, magnesium, total protein, or urea after transport exceeding 18 h.
“Electrolytes and total protein have been shown to increase in response to long-distance transport (11, 16, 29), although not all previous research found differences in potassium, sodium, magnesium, total protein, or urea after transport exceeding 18 h (14–16, 30).”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
A negative energy balance has been reported following long fasting durations and transport, as demonstrated by a decrease in glucose and an increase in BHB and NEFA.
“A negative energy balance has been reported following long fasting durations and transport (11, 14–16), as demonstrated by a decrease in glucose and an increase in BHB and NEFA.”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
Previous studies have reported that using a conditioned versus an open truck influenced immune cell subsets, but calves transported in summer and winter showed little difference in clinical variables after a 19-h journey.
“Previous studies have also reported that using a conditioned versus an open truck influenced immune cell subsets (43), but calves transported in summer and winter showed little difference in clinical variables after a 19-h journey (16).”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
Calves can lose between 1% and 7% of body weight during transport lasting up to 19 h, and body weight loss in the current study fell within these limits.
“Calves can lose between 1% and 7% of body weight during transport lasting up to 19 h (15, 16), and body weight loss in the current study fell within these limits.”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
Glucose concentrations decrease as a result of extended fasting and the mobilization of adipose reserves.
“Specifically, concentrations of NEFA and BHB increase, and glucose decrease as a result of extended fasting and consequently, the mobilization of adipose reserves (Mormede et al., 1982; Knowles et al., 1999; Bernardini et al., 2012).”
From A randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of providing a rest period during long-distance transportation of surplus dairy calves: Part II. Effect on hematological variables (2024) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
BHB concentrations increase as a result of extended fasting and the mobilization of adipose reserves.
“Specifically, concentrations of NEFA and BHB increase, and glucose decrease as a result of extended fasting and consequently, the mobilization of adipose reserves (Mormede et al., 1982; Knowles et al., 1999; Bernardini et al., 2012).”
From A randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of providing a rest period during long-distance transportation of surplus dairy calves: Part II. Effect on hematological variables (2024) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
NEFA concentrations increase as a result of extended fasting and the mobilization of adipose reserves.
“Specifically, concentrations of NEFA and BHB increase, and glucose decrease as a result of extended fasting and consequently, the mobilization of adipose reserves (Mormede et al., 1982; Knowles et al., 1999; Bernardini et al., 2012).”
From A randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of providing a rest period during long-distance transportation of surplus dairy calves: Part II. Effect on hematological variables (2024) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
The additional energy needed for thermoregulation and maintaining balance in a moving vehicle aggravates energy loss during transport.
“The additional energy needed for thermoregulation and maintaining balance in a moving vehicle aggravates energy loss during transport (Todd et al., 2000; Bernardini et al., 2012).”
From Effects of pre- and post-transport feeding protocols on the metabolism and physiological status of veal calves. (2025) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
Markers of hydration such as blood urea and albumin can take from 48 h to several weeks to normalize, depending on transport duration and conditions.
“it can take markers of hydration such as blood urea and albumin from 48 h to several weeks to normalize, depending on transport duration and conditions (Bernardini et al., 2012; Marcato et al., 2020a).”
From Effects of pre- and post-transport feeding protocols on the metabolism and physiological status of veal calves. (2025) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
Cortisol has been reported to return to pre-transport values within 5 to 48 h.
“Cortisol has been reported to return to pre-transport values within 5 to 48 h (Bernardini et al., 2012; Masmeijer et al., 2019)”
From Effects of pre- and post-transport feeding protocols on the metabolism and physiological status of veal calves. (2025) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
Weight loss most likely occurred mainly due to loss of fluid through excretion and accounted for 7.5% (preALT) and 4% (preCTRL) of initial BW, within the range of previously reported values for long-distance transport.
“This weight loss most likely occurred mainly due to loss of fluid through excretion and accounted for 7.5% (preALT) and 4% (preCTRL) of initial BW, which falls within the range of previously reported values for long-distance transport (Earley and Murray, 2010; Bernardini et al., 2012; Marcato et al., 2020a).”
From Effects of pre- and post-transport feeding protocols on the metabolism and physiological status of veal calves. (2025) · cites this paper as Bernardini et al., 2012
Young calves possess limited body fat reserves to cope with energy depletion through fasting and to regulate their body temperature in cold transport conditions.
“Young calves possess limited body fat reserves to cope with energy depletion through fasting [16, 17] and to regulate their body temperature in cold transport conditions [18, 19].”
From Effects of age and feeding protocols on the metabolic and physiological condition of unweaned calves during and after long-distance transport (2026) · cites this paper as [18]
Elevated electrolyte and protein concentrations reflect a reduction in plasma volume and are often reported as the result of long periods without water or food during transport.
“Elevated electrolyte and protein concentrations reflect a reduction in plasma volume and are often reported as the result of long periods without water or food during transport [18, 46, 47].”
From Effects of age and feeding protocols on the metabolic and physiological condition of unweaned calves during and after long-distance transport (2026) · cites this paper as [18]
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- Authors
- Bernardini, D., Gerardi, G., Peli, A., Nanni Costa, L., Amadori, M., & Segato, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Padua (IT)
- University of Bologna (IT)
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini" (IT)
- Venue
- Journal of Animal Science
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-04-01
- Volume
- 90
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1183-1191
- ISSN
- 0021-8812 (ISSN-L)
- 1525-3163
- OpenAlex
- W2071975154
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 3.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Animal Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion)
- Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Effects of Environmental Stressors on Livestock
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal health and immunology
- Keywords
- calves, thermoregulation, thermal stress (biology), Holstein cows, hematological parameters, clinical factors, heart rate, body temperature, rectal temperature, cortisol, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, beta-hydroxybutyrate, NEFA, hydration, seasonal variation, temperature-humidity index
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Husbandry, Body Temperature, Body Temperature Regulation, Cattle, Erythrocyte Count, Heart Rate, Hematocrit, Leukocyte Count, Male, Transportation
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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