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Inequality in Preschool Education and School Readiness
Open accessAbstract
Attendance in U.S. preschools has risen substantially in recent decades, but gaps in enrollment between children from advantaged and disadvantaged families remain. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999, we analyze the effect of participation in child care and early education on children’s school readiness as measured by early reading and math skills in kindergarten and first grade. We find that children who attended a center or school-based preschool program in the year before school entry perform better on assessments of reading and math skills upon beginning kindergarten, after controlling for a host of family background and other factors that might be associated with selection into early education programs and relatively high academic skills. This advantage persists when children’s skills are measured in the spring of kindergarten and first grade, and children who attended early education programs are also less likely to be retained in kindergarten. In most instances, the effects are largest for disadvantaged groups, raising the possibility that policies promoting preschool enrollment of children from disadvantaged families might help to narrow the school readiness gap.
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“children in poverty are far less likely than their higher-income counterparts to enter school ready to learn (Magnuson et al. 2004).”
From School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach (2015) · cites this paper as Magnuson et al. 2004
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“Pre-K and Head Start programs frequently provide better quality education and care, compared with other community programs (Magnuson et al., 2004), so some minority children may be experiencing modest to good classroom quality (Iruka & Morgan, 2014).”
BackgroundEren, S. U. N. A., & Özer, M. (2021) · Eğitimde ve Psikolojide Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Dergisi · doi:10.21031/epod.860431 · Cited by 26
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“Moreover, although higher-risk children are more likely to attend preschool programs during early childhood, those programs are also more likely to be of lower quality than programs attended by other children (Magnuson et al., 2004; Magnuson & Waldfogel, 2005).”
BackgroundBlewitt, C., Morris, H., Jackson, K., Barrett, H., Bergmeier, H. J., O’Connor, A., Mousa, A., Nolan, A., & Skouteris, H. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17020575 · Cited by 31
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“Studies have found overwhelmingly that the benefits of pre-K are stronger for socioeconomically disadvantaged children than their more advantaged peers (Magnuson et al., 2004; Magnuson, Ruhm, & Waldfogel, 2007; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).”
BackgroundAstuto, J., & Ruck, M. D. (2017) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2016.1257943 · Cited by 26
West, A. (2006) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/03054980600775516 · Cited by 25
“…families, has been associated with shortterm improvements in cognitive development although often these ‘appeared to “fade out” after a few years’ (Melhuish, 2004, p. 18); there is also some evidence that this is associated with the experiences for African American children as opposed to…”
BackgroundInfluentialOECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS Social Disadvantage and Education Experiences
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“Because center care, compared with all other arrangements, provides the greatest opportunity for children to acquire school readiness skills, this singular focus on type runs counter to current efforts that encourage center care use as a strategy for reducing early achievement gaps (Magnuson et al. 2004).”
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“Empirical evidence has consistently established a strong association between family socio-economic status (SES) and children’s learning attainments (Coleman 1966; Ip et al. 2016; Kafle and Jolliffe 2015; Magnuson et al. 2004; Melhuish et al. 2008).”
BackgroundParent Involvement in Pre-Kindergarten and the Effects on Student Achievement
McDowell, K. D., Jack, A. R., & Compton, M. (2018) · The Advocate · doi:10.4148/2637-4552.1004 · Cited by 24
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“Using a nationally representative survey, Magnuson, Meyers, Ruhm, and Waldfogel ( 2004 ) reported that kindergarten math and reading performance was significantly better when disadvantaged children (families in poverty, low maternal education, single parents, and non-English-speaking mothers) attended school-based pre…”
BackgroundFoster children and placement stability: The role of child care assistance
Meloy, M. E., & Phillips, D. A. (2012) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2012.06.001 · Cited by 25
“Evidence on biological parents indicates that, as with this sample of foster parents, minorities and those with typically developing children are more likely to use child care perhaps because they also have higher rates of employment (Loeb et al., 2004; Magnuson, Meyers, Rhum, & Waldfogel, 2003).”
BackgroundResultPreliminary Development of the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile
Lilles, E. M., Furlong, M. J., Quirk, M. P., Felix, E. D., Dominguez, K., & Anderson, M. (2009) · The California School Psychologist · doi:10.1007/bf03340952 · Cited by 24
Gene‐by‐preschool interaction on the development of early externalizing problems
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Understanding Barriers and Solutions Affecting Preschool Attendance in Low-Income Families
Susman-Stillman, A., Englund, M. M., Storm, K. J., & Bailey, A. E. (2018) · Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) · doi:10.1080/10824669.2018.1434657 · Cited by 28
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“Researchers have suggested that differences in book reading may partially account for the SES-gap in school readiness in preschool-aged children (Magnuson et al., 2004).”
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Bachman, H. J., Degol, J. L., Elliott, L. E., Scharphorn, L., Nokali, N. E. E., & Palmer, K. M. (2017) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2017.1406245 · Cited by 24
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“…their children, are strong predictors of student achievement (DiMaggio 1982; Evans et al. 2010; Kingston 2001; Sirin 2005); Studies of school readiness detect socioeconomic gaps in early literacy and numeracy among preschool children (Duncan et al. 2007; Hart and Risley 1995; Magnuson et al. 2004).”
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“…programs because research has indicated these settings are positively associated with school success (Loeb, Fuller, Kagan, & Carrol, 2004; Magnuson et al., 2004).1 Analytic sample.2 There were 9,872 children within 2,119 schools (at fifth grade) in our final longitudinal sample, which…”
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Child Care and Early Education in Australia - the Longitudinal Study of Australian ChildrenPreprint
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“Analysis of the ECLS–K dataset conducted by Magnuson and colleagues (Magnuson et al. 2003; Magnuson, Ruhm & Waldfogel 2004) showed that children attending preschool programs had better literacy and numeracy skills at ages 5 and 6, with greater effects for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.”
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“Second, several studies (Gormley and Gayer, 2005; Gormley et al., 2005; Magnuson et al., 2004, 2005) estimate the effect of preschool programs on outcomes prior to or at kindergarten entry or later for children aged 3 to 5 and find statistically significant positive effects on cognitive outcomes…”
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“For example, Major and Savin-Baden (2010) contend that, “Between 6 and 10 studies is optimal to provide sufficient yet manageable data” (p.”
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Child care and early education in Australia - the Longitudinal study of Australian children
Harrison, L. J. S., Ungerer, J. A., Gj, S., Zubrick, S. R., Wise, S., Press, F., & Waniganayake, M. (2009) · eSpace (Curtin University) · Cited by 17
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Estonian preschool teachers’ views on supporting children’s school readiness
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“…conducted in the world and in Estonia show that children’s development, when starting school, can vary: one part of children, compared to others, can be more or less developed (Grigg et al. 2002; Hair et al. 2006; Janus and Duku 2007; Magnuson et al. 2004; Persky, Daane, and Jin 2002; Põdra 2017).”
BackgroundFamily-School Connections, Early Learning, and Socioeconomic Inequality in the US
Crosnoe, R. L. (2023) · Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.4471/remie.2012.01 · Cited by 16
Azizah, S. N., Saleh, S., & Sulistyaningrum, E. (2022) · Economies · doi:10.3390/economies10020054 · Cited by 15
“This research follows Brooks-Gunn et al. (2010) and Magnuson et al. (2004) model with some renewal and combination included.”
MethodThe G udaga S tudy: Development in 3‐year‐old urban Aboriginal children
McDonald, J. L., Webster, V., Knight, J. A., & Comino, E. J. (2013) · Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health · doi:10.1111/jpc.12476 · Cited by 15
Ethnische Ungleichheiten in der vorschulischen Bildung
Becker, B., & Biedinger, N. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-04322-3_10 · Cited by 15
Li, L., Chen, X., Wu, D., & Li, H. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105211 · Cited by 15
Bayly, B. L., & Bierman, K. L. (2021) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2020.1865785 · Cited by 18
“, 2007), low-income families are often constrained in their childcare choices and hence children are less likely to attend highquality, center-based care (Magnuson et al., 2004; Yesil-Dagli, 2011).”
BackgroundSegregated from the Start: Peer Context in Center-based Child Care
Fram, M. S., & Kim, J. (2012) · Children & Schools · doi:10.1093/cs/cds011 · Cited by 15
Cloney, D., Tayler, C., Hattie, J., Cleveland, G., & Adams, R. (2016) · Australasian Journal of Early Childhood · doi:10.1177/183693911604100403 · Cited by 15
“Children from low-SES families (who stand most to gain) are not sufficiently exposed to quality factors that are likely to make differences to child outcomes (Duncan & Sojourner, 2013; Loeb et al., 2007; Magnuson et al., 2004).”
BackgroundA Text-Based Intervention to Promote Literacy: An RCT
Chamberlain, L. J., Bruce, J. S., Cruz, M. D. L., Huffman, L. C., Steinberg, J. R., Bruguera, R., Peterson, J. W., Gardner, R. M., He, Z., Ordaz, Y., et al. (2021) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2020-049648 · Cited by 16
Luo, R., & Song, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1016492 · Cited by 14
“These findings were consistent with previous evidence that high-quality early education buffers against the negative effects of impoverished home experiences on children’s language and cognitive outcomes (Magnuson et al., 2004; McCartney et al., 2007; Crosnoe et al., 2010; Vernon-Feagans et al., 2013, 2019).”
BackgroundResultBreaking the Cycle: Cumulative Disadvantage in Literacy
Northrop, L. (2017) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.195 · Cited by 15
Fan, X., Linder, S. M., D’Amico, L. K., White, K. M., & Pawloski, T. (2021) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-021-01206-0 · Cited by 20
“Children who attended a center or school-based program in the year before school entry performed better on reading and math in kindergarten (Magnuson et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialLee, S. Y., Kim, R., Rodgers, J., & Subramanian, S. V. (2021) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100916 · Cited by 17
Child Care Preferences of Foreign-Born Immigrant Groups in California
Santhiveeran, J. (2010) · Journal of Family Social Work · doi:10.1080/10522150903449172 · Cited by 14
The influence of immigration status on early childhood education and care enrollment
Greenberg, J. P., & Kahn, J. M. (2011) · Journal of Early Childhood Research · doi:10.1177/1476718x10366618 · Cited by 14
“Children who attend preschool enter school with higher levels of academic skills (Magnuson et al., 2004, 2007).”
BackgroundThe Spillover Benefits of Expanding Access to Preschool
Williams, B. J. (2018) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.04.002 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Magnuson, K. A., Meyers, M. K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Venue
- American Educational Research Journal
- Published
- 2004-01
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 115-157
- ISSN
- 0002-8312 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1011
- OpenAlex
- W2132172481
- Cited by
- 691
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 110.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- American Educational Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Education › Parental Involvement in Education
- Keywords
- preschool education, school readiness, educational inequality, child care, early childhood education, reading skills, mathematical skills, kindergarten retention, disadvantaged children, family background, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
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