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Inequality in Preschool Education and School Readiness
Open accessAbstract
Attendance in U.S. preschools has risen substantially in recent decades, but gaps in enrollment between children from advantaged and disadvantaged families remain. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999, we analyze the effect of participation in child care and early education on children’s school readiness as measured by early reading and math skills in kindergarten and first grade. We find that children who attended a center or school-based preschool program in the year before school entry perform better on assessments of reading and math skills upon beginning kindergarten, after controlling for a host of family background and other factors that might be associated with selection into early education programs and relatively high academic skills. This advantage persists when children’s skills are measured in the spring of kindergarten and first grade, and children who attended early education programs are also less likely to be retained in kindergarten. In most instances, the effects are largest for disadvantaged groups, raising the possibility that policies promoting preschool enrollment of children from disadvantaged families might help to narrow the school readiness gap.
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“children in poverty are far less likely than their higher-income counterparts to enter school ready to learn (Magnuson et al. 2004).”
From School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach (2015) · cites this paper as Magnuson et al. 2004
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221 · Cited by 1,240
Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation
Cunha, F., Heckman, J. J., Lochner, L., & Masterov, D. V. (2005) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11331 · Cited by 1,142
“This technology also is sufficiently rich to describe learning in rodents and rhesus monkeys as documented by Meaney (2001) and Cameron (2004).”
BackgroundMelhuish, E. C., Phan, M. B., Sylva, Κ., Sammons, P., Siraj, I., & Taggart, B. (2008) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00550.x · Cited by 788
Burchinal, M., Vandergrift, N., Pianta, R. C., & Mashburn, A. J. (2009) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.10.004 · Cited by 835
“Evaluations of public pre-kindergarten programs (Gormley et al., 2005; Howes et al., 2008; Magnuson et al., 2004; Mashburn et al., 2008) also indicated that low-income children in these programs made substantial gains in language, academic, and social skills.”
BackgroundThe Effects of Universal Pre-K on Cognitive Development.
Gormley, W. T., Gayer, T., Phillips, D. A., & Dawson, B. (2005) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.872 · Cited by 763
“Kindergarten students who had attended a preschool or child care center also experienced improvements, but the pre-K participants’ improvements were more substantial ( Magnuson, Meyers, Ruhm, & Waldfogel, 2003 ).1 Finally, evidence from a prior evaluation of Tulsa, Oklahoma’s pre-K program that used a locally develope…”
Burger, K. (2009) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.11.001 · Cited by 711
Does prekindergarten improve school preparation and performance?
Magnuson, K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2006) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.09.008 · Cited by 675
Self-citationChapter 12 Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation
Cunha, F., Heckman, J. J., Lochner, L., & Masterov, D. V. (2006) · Handbook of the economics of education · doi:10.1016/s1574-0692(06)01012-9 · Cited by 714
Anders, Y., Roßbach, H., Weinert, S., Ebert, S., Kuger, S., Lehrl, S., & von Maurice, J. (2012) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.08.003 · Cited by 622
Loeb, S., Bridges, M., Bassok, D., Fuller, B. C., & Rumberger, R. W. (2006) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.11.005 · Cited by 627
“Yet, several studies indicate that children from disadvantaged homes may exhibit the greater gains from participating in center-based programs (Burchinal et al., 1997; Campbell & Ramey, 1994; Magnuson et al., 2004a).”
BackgroundKindergarten skills and fifth-grade achievement: Evidence from the ECLS-K
Claessens, A., Duncan, G., & Engel, M. (2009) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2008.09.003 · Cited by 498
“Understanding links between school entry behavior problems and later school achievement is particularly important in light of recent evidence that center-based child care (Belsky, 2006) and even pre-kindergarten programs ( Magnuson et al., 2004 ) may increase anti-social behavior.”
BackgroundEarly Childhood Care and Education: Effects on Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness
Magnuson, K., & Waldfogel, J. (2005) · The Future of Children · doi:10.1353/foc.2005.0005 · Cited by 462
Self-citationThe Effects of Preschool Education
Pianta, R. C., Barnett, W. S., Burchinal, M., & Thornburg, K. R. (2009) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100610381908 · Cited by 488
“As we have discussed, numerous research studies have documented short-term and long-term benefits of attending preschool, and this has led to the creation and expansion of public programs nationwide (Barnett, 1993; Gormley et al., 2005; Lazar, Darlington, Murray, Royce, & Snipper, 1982; Magnuson et al., 2004; Puma et…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRecent Trends in Income, Racial, and Ethnic School Readiness Gaps at Kindergarten Entry
Reardon, S. F., & Portilla, X. A. (2016) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858416657343 · Cited by 462
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Children’s Classroom Engagement and School Readiness Gains in Prekindergarten
Chien, N. C., Howes, C. H., Burchinal, M., Pianta, R. C., Ritchie, S., Bryant, D., Clifford, R. M., Early, D. M., & Barbarin, O. A. (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01490.x · Cited by 337
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Maternal employment and adolescent development
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“Conversely, high quality care is linked to increased school readiness and improved cognitive development (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002; Magnuson et al., 2004b).”
Self-citationPreschool and School Readiness of Children of Immigrants*
Magnuson, K., Lahaie, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2006) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00426.x · Cited by 289
“Moreover, children who attended preschool enter school with higher levels of academic skills, compared with children who attended only informal child care or were at home with their parents (Magnuson et al., 2004; Magnuson, Ruhm, and Waldfogel, 2005).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationPromoting School Readiness in Oklahoma
Gormley, W. T., & Gayer, T. (2005) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.3368/jhr.xl.3.533 · Cited by 286
Mistry, R. S., Benner, A. D., Biesanz, J. C., Clark, S. L., & Howes, C. H. (2010) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.01.002 · Cited by 303
Family Socioeconomic Status and Consistent Environmental Stimulation in Early Childhood
Crosnoe, R., Leventhal, T., Wirth, R. J., Pierce, K. M., Pianta, R. C., & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01446.x · Cited by 255
The persistence of preschool effects: Do subsequent classroom experiences matter?
Magnuson, K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2006) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.10.002 · Cited by 255
Self-citationPreschool Education and Its Lasting Effects: Research and Policy Implications
Barnett, W. S. (2008) · CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder) · Cited by 243
Condron, D. J. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400501 · Cited by 205
“Some studies find that center-based care boosts children’s academic skills relative to parental care (Magnuson et al. 2004), but longitudinal analyses of students’ early school-year gains, which are better able to 686—–AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW”
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Palermo, F., Hanish, L. D., Martin, C. L., Fabes, R. A., & Reiser, M. (2007) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.04.002 · Cited by 201
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“As such, these findings provide further evidence supporting current policies related to ensuring that children exposed to risk can attend child care programs that enhance cognitive and language skills such as Head Start, prekindergarten programs, or high-quality child care (Magnuson et al., 2004).”
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A Vision for Universal Preschool Education
Zigler, E., Gilliam, W., & Jones, S. M. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139167284 · Cited by 168
The impacts of an early mathematics curriculum on oral language and literacy
Sarama, J. H., Lange, A. A., Clements, D. H., & Wolfe, C. B. (2011) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.12.002 · Cited by 186
Poverty, Race, and Parental Involvement During the Transition to Elementary School
Cooper, C. E., Crosnoe, R. L., Suizzo, M., & Pituch, K. A. (2009) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x09351515 · Cited by 167
Closing the gap in academic readiness and achievement: the role of early childcare
Geoffroy, M., Côté, S. M., Giguère, C., Dionne, G., Zelazo, P. D., Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M., & Séguin, J. R. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02316.x · Cited by 159
“…observational studies of early childcare have reported comparable effects (although their magnitude may be smaller in some instances) to those of interventional childcare studies, designed to be of the highest quality (Côté et al., 2007; Dearing, McCartney, & Taylor, 2009; Magnuson et al., 2004).”
ResultMcCartney, K., Burchinal, M. A., Clarke‐Stewart, A., Bub, K. L., Owen, M. T., & Belsky, J. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017886 · Cited by 157
Academic Content, Student Learning, and the Persistence of Preschool Effects
Claessens, A., Engel, M., & Curran, F. C. (2014) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831213513634 · Cited by 154
“The academic benefits from early childhood education and care Claessens et al. have been found to be larger among children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Magnuson et al., 2004).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Effects of Oklahoma's Pre‐K Program on Hispanic Children*
Gormley, W. T. (2008) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2008.00591.x · Cited by 147
Instruction, teacher–student relations, and math achievement trajectories in elementary school.
Crosnoe, R. L., Morrison, F. J., Burchinal, M. A., Pianta, R. C., Keating, D. P., Friedman, S. L., & Clarke‐Stewart, K. A. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017762 · Cited by 147
Yoshikaw, H., Weiland, C., & Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B. (2016) · The Future of Children · doi:10.1353/foc.2016.0010 · Cited by 160
Early Child Care and the School Readiness of Children from Mexican Immigrant Families
Crosnoe, R. (2007) · International Migration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2007.00060.x · Cited by 243
Nelson, G., & McMaster, K. L. (2018) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000334 · Cited by 131
The Long-Term Effects of Universal Preschool in Boston
Gray-Lobe, G., Pathak, P. A., & Walters, C. (2022) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjac036 · Cited by 143
Phillips, D. A., Gormley, W. T., & Lowenstein, A. E. (2009) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.05.002 · Cited by 124
Stichwort: Auswirkungen frühkindlicher institutioneller Betreuung und Bildung
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“Verschiedene Studien der letzten Jahre haben dokumentiert, dass sich kinder bereits zu Beginn der Grundschulzeit stark in ihren sprachlichen, mathematischen und allgemeinkognitiven Fähigkeiten unterscheiden (z. B. Magnuson et al. 2004; nIchD eccrn 2002a, 2005a; weinert et al. 2010).”
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Bitler, M., Hoynes, H. W., & Domina, T. (2014) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w20434 · Cited by 129
Linebarger, D. L., & Piotrowski, J. (2009) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151008x400445 · Cited by 115
Primary Teachers' Conceptions of Giftedness
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The Economics of Investing in Universal Preschool Education in California
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“A recent study by Duncan and Magnuson (2011) used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Cohort to compare children in the bottom and top quintiles of socioeconomic status (SES).”
BackgroundInfluentialHealth and the education of children from racial/ethnic minority and immigrant families.
Crosnoe, R. (2006) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/002214650604700106 · Cited by 113
“This latter measure was based on teachers’ assessments of each child’s classroom skills, including concentration and attention (see Magnuson et al. 2004 for a more complete description).”
MethodSelection into early education and care settings: Differences by developmental period
Coley, R. L., Votruba‐Drzal, E., Collins, M. A., & Miller, P. L. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.03.006 · Cited by 114
Canadian evidence on ten years of universal preschool policies: The good and the bad
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“…the quality of care seems to have positive, but small, effects on cognitive outcomes (Blau, 1999; Duncan et al., 2003; Belsky et al. 2007), longer hours in all types of preschool programs seem to be associated with increased behavioural problems that persist over time (Magnuson et al., 2004, 2005).”
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“There is a sizeable literature suggesting that, all else equal, children who have attended preschool enter school more ready to learn (for the most recent evidence on this point, see Lee and Burkam, 2002; Magnuson et al., 2004).”
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“improvements were more substantial ( Magnuson et al., 2003 ).2 However, neither the Michigan”
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Self-citationEarly academic skills and childhood experiences across the urban–rural continuum
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“…is evidence that child care quality differs by urbanicity (Beach, 1995; Kisker et al., 1991), and ECE quality has been found to relate to early achievement (Loeb et al., 2004; Magnuson et al., 2004), it may be an important factor in explaining achievement gaps across the urban–rural continuum.”
Burchinal, M., Vernon‐Feagans, L., Vitiello, V. E., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.09.004 · Cited by 99
Is Separate Still Unequal? New Evidence on School Segregation and Racial Academic Achievement Gaps
Reardon, S. F., Weathers, E. S., Fahle, E. M., Jang, H., & Kalogrides, D. (2024) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224241297263 · Cited by 115
“…income and educational resources that parents can provide at home, differences in neighborhood conditions that support learning, and differences in enrollment in high-quality early-childhood educational programs (Bassok et al. 2016; Bassok and Galdo 2016; Magnuson et al. 2004; Valentino 2018).”
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“High-quality early childhood development programs have proven to be successful in helping students overcome early problems (Magnuson et al., 2004; Hair et al., 2006).”
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Vernon‐Feagans, L., & Bratsch‐Hines, M. (2013) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.08.002 · Cited by 98
“In a study of 11 state prekindergarten programs, Magnuson et al. (2004) found similar buffering for children from high-risk backgrounds (low maternal education, single parenthood) in predicting school readiness skills.”
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Assessing Sensitivity to Unmeasured Confounding Using a Simulated Potential Confounder
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School’s Out: The Role of Summers in Understanding Achievement Disparities
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“…schools in achievement Children experience vastly different home environments prior to formalschooling (Gilkerson & Richards, 2009; Kaushal et al., 2011; Kornrich & Furstenberg, 2013) and thus arrive at kindergarten with a wide range of starting skills (Lee & Burkam, 2002; Magnuson et al., 2004).”
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“Again, these results line up moderately well with Reardon’s data (2011); however, his Q3-Q5 gaps in reading and math achievement rise steadily throughout this period (see his Figures 5.”
ResultInfluentialSelf-citationParental leave, childcare and gender equality in the Nordic countries
Brandth, B., Eydal, G. B., Lammi-Taskula, J., Gíslason, I. V., Duvander, A., & Rostgaard, T. (2012) · TemaNord · doi:10.6027/tn2011-562 · Cited by 82
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“And although proximal indicators of preschool quality and experience are not available in the ECLS-K: 1998 Cohort, there are other important dimensions of preschool experience that shape children’s academic and psychosocial functioning including the number of hours children are in preschool and program type, which in…”
InfluentialLiterature review: Transition from early childhood education to school
Peters, S. (2010) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 80
(2022) · Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction · doi:10.47750/pegegog.12.02.04 · Cited by 107
Academic Achievements of Children in Immigrant Families
Han, W. (2006) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.5897/err.9000019 · Cited by 78
Votruba‐Drzal, E., Coley, R. L., Koury, A. S., & Miller, P. L. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032951 · Cited by 78
Coddington, C. H., Mistry, R. S., & Bailey, A. L. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.06.004 · Cited by 84
Preschools Reduce Early Academic-Achievement Gaps
Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611426728 · Cited by 88
Amato, P. R. (2014) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12069 · Cited by 76
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“…effective to investigate what influences children’s development at an earlier age (in pre-school) because children showing higher skills at primary school entry often maintain this advantage at later ages (e.g. Tymms et al., 1997; Sammons & Smees, 1998; Magnuson et al., 2004; Sammons et al., 2004).”
BackgroundLong-term effects of public early childhood education on academic achievement in Chile
Cortázar, A. (2015) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.003 · Cited by 62
Social Disadvantage and Education Experiences
Machin, S. J. (2006) · OECD social employment and migration working papers · doi:10.1787/715165322333 · Cited by 73
Continuities and Consistencies Across Home and School Systems
Crosnoe, R. L. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16931-6_4 · Cited by 74
Early reading achievement of children in immigrant families: Is there an immigrant paradox?
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Bulotsky‐Shearer, R. J., Wen, X., Faria, A.-M., Hahs‐Vaughn, D. L., & Korfmacher, J. (2012) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.02.001 · Cited by 72
Tudge, J. R. H., Doucet, F., Odero-Wanga, D., Sperb, T. M., Piccinini, C. A., & Lopes, R. D. C. S. (2006) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00947.x · Cited by 72
Coley, R. L., Votruba‐Drzal, E., Collins, M. A., & Cook, K. D. (2016) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.11.002 · Cited by 71
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Socioeconomic Segregation and School Choice in American Public Schools
Marcotte, D. E., & Dalane, K. (2019) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x19879714 · Cited by 70
Children’s cortisol levels and quality of child care provision
Sims, M., Guilfoyle, A. M., & Parry, T. (2006) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00632.x · Cited by 70
“However, in countries such as the United States, children living in poverty and children from high-income families are more likely to attend high-quality centres (Magnuson et al. 2004).”
BackgroundDevelopment of early handwriting: Visual-motor control during letter copying.
Maldarelli, J. E., Kahrs, B. A., Hunt, S. C., & Lockman, J. J. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039424 · Cited by 69
Bassok, D., Fitzpatrick, M., & Loeb, S. (2014) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2014.07.001 · Cited by 67
“…on how government provision and funding affects child outcomes and family decision making (Currie and Thomas 1995, 1999; Blau and Currie, 2004; Magnuson et al. 2004; Gormley and Gayer 2005; Gormley et al. 2005; Schweinhart et al. 1993; Fitzpatrick 2008; Fitzpatrick 2010; Herbst and Tekin…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Magnuson, K. A., Meyers, M. K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Venue
- American Educational Research Journal
- Published
- 2004-01
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 115-157
- ISSN
- 0002-8312 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1011
- OpenAlex
- W2132172481
- Cited by
- 691
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 110.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- American Educational Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Education › Parental Involvement in Education
- Keywords
- preschool education, school readiness, educational inequality, child care, early childhood education, reading skills, mathematical skills, kindergarten retention, disadvantaged children, family background, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
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